How Russia lost a historic chance to take Constantinople and the Straits
140 years ago, 3 March 1878, a preliminary peace treaty between Russia and Turkey was signed in San Stefano. Russia won a convincing victory over the Ottoman Empire and put the winning point.
The treaty was of great importance for the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke. The day of the signing of the San Stefan Peace Treaty is a national holiday of Bulgaria, on which the day of the liberation and restoration of the Bulgarian state is celebrated.
On the road to peace
During the winter campaign 1877 — 1878. The Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Balkan theater to the Turkish troops. Russian troops successfully overcame the Balkan Mountains, which were considered impregnable in the winter, defeated the enemy in a series of battles and moved to Constantinople. The port lost the opportunity to wage war and was in danger of losing the capital of Constantinople.
Even before the capture of Plevna in December 1877, Petersburg announced to Berlin and Vienna its project for the future world. It provided for: 1) the creation of the Bulgarian principality, within wide boundaries, vassal in relation to Porta; 2) autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina with their transfer under the protectorate of Austria; 3) the complete independence of Romania, Montenegro and Serbia; 4) the return to Russia of southwestern Bessarabia; 4) compensation of Romania at the expense of Dobrogee; 5) Kars, Batum, Ardagan and Bayazet joining Russia in the Caucasus; 6) payment by Turkey of the contribution. There was also some change in the regime of the straits. Russia received the right, if necessary, to conduct military ships through the straits, but only one at a time and with the permission of the Sultan.
The defeat of Turkey on the Balkan front seriously worried England. London has repeatedly set neighboring countries on Russia, including Turkey, in order to limit the growth of strategic, military and economic power of the Russian Empire. London sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea and the Baltic, not to allow it to strengthen its position in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The ideal for England was weak, having lost access to the seas and preferably divided into parts of Russia. It is clear that the decisive defeat of the Turkish Empire did not suit London. Russia could seriously strengthen its position in the Black Sea, on the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus, and penetrate further into the Near and Middle East, into the Mediterranean Sea. They were especially afraid in London that Petersburg would sweep the Black Sea Straits and Constantinople-Constantinople, deciding the thousand-year historical the task of Russian civilization. The same fears - the consolidation of the Russians in the Balkans and in the strait zone, was also expressed by Vienna. The Austrians feared that the Christian and Slavic peoples of the Balkans would fall under the care of Russia. This jeopardized the dominance of the Habsburgs over a large part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Slavic peoples within Austria-Hungary.
December 13 London 1877 expressed the hope that if the Russian troops would cross the Balkans, they would not occupy either Constantinople or Gallipoli. It is a peninsula in the European part of Turkey, between the Saros Gulf of the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles. The British again warned Petersburg that even the temporary occupation of Constantinople would force England to take "precautionary measures." Petersburg responded by saying that the capture of Constantinople was not part of Russia's intentions and the Gallipolsky Peninsula would not be busy if neither the Turks nor the British would concentrate their troops there. Russia cannot, however, guarantee that the course of military operations will not force it to temporarily occupy Constantinople.
London during the Russo-Turkish war developed plans for the direction fleet for occupying the straits and landing troops in Gallipoli. Part of the British cabinet even advocated joining the war on the side of Turkey and the landing of British expeditionary forces in Batumi and Varna. This could direct the war according to the Crimean scenario. However, caution prevailed. England did not have a strong ground army to confront Russia in the Balkans and the Caucasus, not to mention the impossibility of its normal supply. But there was no “cannon fodder” - allies who would like to fight the Russians. London tried to provoke Vienna to oppose Russia. However, Austria also showed caution. Without strong allies, such as Germany and France, Russia had every opportunity to defeat the Austrian army in the Balkan Theater and provoke a split in the Habsburg empire, with the separation of Hungary and Slavic regions. In addition, Austria has not yet recovered from the defeat of 1866.
24 December 1877, the defeated Ottoman Empire appealed to the great powers to mediate in peace negotiations. Only London responded. The English government notified St. Petersburg about this. The Russian chancellor and foreign minister, Alexander Gorchakov, said that if Porta wants to end the war, then she should apply for a truce directly to the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The endowment of the truce depended on the preliminary adoption of the provisions of the future peace agreement. At the same time, the Russian government reaffirmed its readiness to transfer to the discussion of an international conference those clauses of the treaty that affect "common European interests".
8 January 1878, the Port appealed to the Russian commander-in-chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich, requesting an armistice. The offensive of the Russian army was developing successfully, so the Russian high command and the government did not hurry with the actual start of negotiations. In addition, Vienna expressed dissatisfaction with the conditions of peace conveyed to it, which agitated Tsar Alexander II and Gorchakov. On January 17, Alexander ordered the commander-in-chief not to present the Russian “foundations of the world” to the Turks at once, and request their own proposals regarding the conditions for the cessation of hostilities. “It is important for us to gain time,” Gorchakov noted, “in order to come to an agreement with Austria.”
On January 20, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich received the Turkish delegates at Kazanlak (where the Russian main apartment was located at that time) and asked what conditions of peace the Port offers. The Turks replied that they did not have instructions to this effect and were sent only to receive Russian conditions. Then the king’s brother, violating instructions, informed the Russian conditions of peace. The next day, the Turkish commissioners rejected most of the Russian demands. However, they were informed that these conditions are not subject to change, and so long as Turkey is not an example of them, there will be no truce. The Turks requested instructions from the Sultan. More than a week they have been waiting for a response. At this time, the Russian army continued its march on Tsargrad.
On January 22, the Russian commander-in-chief proposed that the tsar take Constantinople and Gallipoli in order to prevent the English fleet from entering the straits. However, he was forbidden to do it. It's obvious that it was a strategic mistake of Petersburg. It was necessary to take Constantinople and the flow zone in order to negotiate with defeated Turkey and the Western powers from this position. By controlling the straits, we ensured the protection of the Russian Black Sea region and the southern strategic direction, excluding the possibility of a repetition of the Crimean scenario. England could not threaten us, relying on the base in the straits. Germany would not oppose Russia. In addition, Berlin could be neutralized by promising him support in the final resolution of the French question, which Bismarck so desired. The weakened France, after the defeat of Prussia in 1870, could not fight with Russia. Austria, without the support of Germany, also would not have decided to go to war with Russia. England remained alone. Without strong allies, the British could only threaten.
However, St. Petersburg went on about the western "partners." The Russian army was allowed to enter Constantinople only with the permission of the Turks themselves or the requests of representatives of foreign powers. "In the case of the entry of foreign fleets," it was proposed "to enter into a friendly agreement with the commanders of squadrons regarding the establishment of order in the city by general forces." Even "in the case of a foreign landing force in Constantinople" it was prescribed to "avoid any collision with it, leaving our troops under the walls of the city."
Thus, despite the decisive victory of the Russian army and the possibility of dictating the Porte any conditions of peace, having solved Russia's age-old national tasks, St. Petersburg was frightened by his brilliant victory and took a hesitant position, which later allowed the West to take away from the Russian Empire most of the fruits of victory of the historical enemy. .
In England they were confused. Russians were on the verge of a historic victory. The British Cabinet continually discussed the situation. Queen Victoria wrote hysterical letters to the prime minister, saying that "if she were a man, she would immediately go and beat the Russians." The surrender of the army of Osman Pasha in Pleven, the fall of Shipka, the defeat of the armies of Suleiman and Mukhtar and the approach of the Russians to the capital, made a terrible alarm in Constantinople. Parliament demanded a change of government and an immediate end to the war with Russia. Sultan Abdul-Hamid II prepared to flee to Asia, the remnants of the army were demoralized, chaos everywhere. Turkish Sultan was afraid to ask England to send a fleet into the straits. Obviously, he was afraid that he would be trapped in his capital between the Russian troops and the British fleet.
London asked Vienna: Will Austria not announce mobilization? The Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, Andrássy, was ready to take that step. But at the request of the military command, which took a guarded stance, knowing the weakness of the army, gave a repeated refusal. January 23 British Cabinet decided to send a fleet into the straits. Parliament has been asked to 6 million pounds for military training. In protest against this decision, two ministers - the Lords of Derby and Carnarvon, resigned. But then a telegram arrived that the Turks accepted the conditions of the Russians. Then the Sultan asked either to refuse the direction of the fleet, or to publicly declare that the British fleet was directed against his will. The English Cabinet reversed its decision. Lord Derby (foreign minister) returned to his post and restrained the belligerent attitude of Prime Minister Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield).
31 January 1878 of the year in Adrianople, amid complete military defeat and inability to protect the capital, the Turks signed an armistice agreement. It included Porta’s consent to the preliminary peace terms offered to her.
Vienna demanded the transfer of the condition of the future world to the discussion of an international conference. The Austrians reported that the Russian conditions of peace violate, in their opinion, the former Reichstadt and Budapest agreements between Russia and Austria-Hungary. The Bulgarian principality was designed so extensive that a new large Slavic state arose in the Balkans. This changed the balance of power in the Balkans, which worried Vienna. Meanwhile, in the Reichstadt and Budapest, it was precisely this that was agreed not to allow. After some hesitation, London joined the request of Vienna to convene a conference. Petersburg did not dare to defend its position, going to conflict with Vienna and London. The tsarist government officially agreed to pass on to the discussion of the international congress the conditions of a future peace treaty.
Meanwhile, in London continued hysterics. Disraeli ordered Admiral Hornby to go to the Dardanelles. The Cabinet of Ministers adopted the relevant decision 8 February. In this case, the admiral was told that he must obtain permission from the Sultan to pass the ships. The fleet moved into the Dardanelles and, entering the strait, the ships anchored, waiting for the sultan's permission. Without waiting for permission, Admiral Hornby headed back to Bezik Bay. Abdul-Hamid was afraid to give permission for the passage of the British fleet to Constantinople, because of the fear that in response the Russian troops would occupy the city and it would become a place of collision between the two great powers.
Petersburg was also a mess. Learning about the movement of the British fleet to Constantinople, the king of February 10 decided to give permission to send Russian troops to Constantinople. Gorchakov and the Minister of War Milutin opposed such a decision. The emperor changed his mind: only the landing of the British troops was to be a signal for the seizure of the Turkish capital. Then Alexander II changed his mind again and was inclined to occupy Constantinople. It all ended with an unexpected decision: one order after another was passed to the commander-in-chief.
Meanwhile, the British fleet 12 February again received instructions to go to the Sea of Marmara, even without the permission of the Sultan's government. The British fleet passed the Dardanelles and February 15 anchored off the Princes' Islands. The fleet passed the strait without the permission of the Sultan and violated the 1871 convention of the year. In response, the Russian army advanced to the western suburbs of Constantinople, the town of San Stefano. The British government threatened that the entry of Russian troops into Constantinople would lead to a rupture of diplomatic relations. Vienna also stated that the appearance of Russian troops in Constantinople would lead to a rupture.
Signing the San Stefan Treaty
Peaceful agreement
3 March 1878, the San Stefan World was signed. On the Russian side, the contract was signed by the former Russian ambassador to Constantinople, Count Nikolai Ignatiev, and the head of the diplomatic office of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the Balkans and the future ambassador A. I. Nelidov. With Turkish - Foreign Minister Savfet Pasha and Ambassador to Germany Saadullah Pasha.
At that time, in Russian diplomacy, the supporters of the conciliatory, cautious line — Gorchakov — were winning up; his closest employees in the Foreign Ministry — Girs, Jomini, one of the most influential ambassadors P. Shuvalov in London. However, the supporter was led by a supporter of the great-power Russian policy, the former ambassador to Turkey - N. Ignatiev. Therefore, the conditions of peace dictated by Turkey as a whole met the national interests of Russia.
The peace treaty significantly expanded the territory of Bulgaria. A new autonomous Slavic state (princedom) was created in the Balkans - Bulgaria, which included ethnic Bulgarian territories in Mesia, Thrace and Macedonia. Bulgaria stretched from the Danube to the Aegean Sea, from the Black Sea to the Ohrid Lake and had to be under Russian control for two years, after which to get full autonomy by paying Turkey a nominal tribute. The Turks lost the right to remain within Bulgaria.
The Treaty of San Stefano also recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, and their territory increased. So, Montenegro was supposed to get the port on the Adriatic Sea, Romania - Northern Dobrudja. The Turks pledged to carry out reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the interests of the Christian population, as well as similar changes in Crete, Epirus, Thessaly and Western Armenia. Russia returned to the south-western part of Bessarabia, in the Caucasus, Turkey was inferior - Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum. Turkey pledged to pay 1,410 billion rubles. contributions, but most of the payments were covered at the expense of territorial concessions to Russia. The question of the straits in this agreement was not raised.
Thus, in general, the Treaty of San Stefano was in the interests of Russia and the Balkan peoples. However, Russia did not solve the problem of Constantinople and the straits in its favor. Petersburg did not dare to confront the West (mainly London and Vienna), although the options were, in particular, an agreement with Berlin and a military challenge. Turkey was already completely defeated and could not fight. Austria-Hungary has not yet recovered from 1866's defeat of the year. England alone would not fight with Russia.
Despite the fact that Russia did not occupy Constantinople and the straits, the Treaty of San Stefan did not suit England and Austria. London feared that Russia would take dominant positions in the Balkans and, by including Bulgaria in its sphere of influence, would receive a strategic foothold on the peninsula and access to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the new borders of Bulgaria came so close to Constantinople that the Turkish capital and the straits were under the constant threat of a strike by Russian troops from the Bulgarian springboard.
Vienna expressed similar concerns. In the Reichstadt and Budapest it was agreed that the creation of a large Slavic state in the Balkans would not be allowed. In its draft, the Constantinople Conference divided Bulgaria into two parts along the meridional direction: Western Bulgaria was to fall into the Austrian sphere of influence. Now Russia has abandoned these agreements and projects. Bulgaria was created as a single state and occupied a significant part of the peninsula. This did not suit Vienna: the Austrians did not want to part with the plans of their rule in the peninsula.
The treaty was of great importance for the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke. The day of the signing of the San Stefan Peace Treaty is a national holiday of Bulgaria, on which the day of the liberation and restoration of the Bulgarian state is celebrated.
On the road to peace
During the winter campaign 1877 — 1878. The Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Balkan theater to the Turkish troops. Russian troops successfully overcame the Balkan Mountains, which were considered impregnable in the winter, defeated the enemy in a series of battles and moved to Constantinople. The port lost the opportunity to wage war and was in danger of losing the capital of Constantinople.
Even before the capture of Plevna in December 1877, Petersburg announced to Berlin and Vienna its project for the future world. It provided for: 1) the creation of the Bulgarian principality, within wide boundaries, vassal in relation to Porta; 2) autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina with their transfer under the protectorate of Austria; 3) the complete independence of Romania, Montenegro and Serbia; 4) the return to Russia of southwestern Bessarabia; 4) compensation of Romania at the expense of Dobrogee; 5) Kars, Batum, Ardagan and Bayazet joining Russia in the Caucasus; 6) payment by Turkey of the contribution. There was also some change in the regime of the straits. Russia received the right, if necessary, to conduct military ships through the straits, but only one at a time and with the permission of the Sultan.
The defeat of Turkey on the Balkan front seriously worried England. London has repeatedly set neighboring countries on Russia, including Turkey, in order to limit the growth of strategic, military and economic power of the Russian Empire. London sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea and the Baltic, not to allow it to strengthen its position in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The ideal for England was weak, having lost access to the seas and preferably divided into parts of Russia. It is clear that the decisive defeat of the Turkish Empire did not suit London. Russia could seriously strengthen its position in the Black Sea, on the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus, and penetrate further into the Near and Middle East, into the Mediterranean Sea. They were especially afraid in London that Petersburg would sweep the Black Sea Straits and Constantinople-Constantinople, deciding the thousand-year historical the task of Russian civilization. The same fears - the consolidation of the Russians in the Balkans and in the strait zone, was also expressed by Vienna. The Austrians feared that the Christian and Slavic peoples of the Balkans would fall under the care of Russia. This jeopardized the dominance of the Habsburgs over a large part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Slavic peoples within Austria-Hungary.
December 13 London 1877 expressed the hope that if the Russian troops would cross the Balkans, they would not occupy either Constantinople or Gallipoli. It is a peninsula in the European part of Turkey, between the Saros Gulf of the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles. The British again warned Petersburg that even the temporary occupation of Constantinople would force England to take "precautionary measures." Petersburg responded by saying that the capture of Constantinople was not part of Russia's intentions and the Gallipolsky Peninsula would not be busy if neither the Turks nor the British would concentrate their troops there. Russia cannot, however, guarantee that the course of military operations will not force it to temporarily occupy Constantinople.
London during the Russo-Turkish war developed plans for the direction fleet for occupying the straits and landing troops in Gallipoli. Part of the British cabinet even advocated joining the war on the side of Turkey and the landing of British expeditionary forces in Batumi and Varna. This could direct the war according to the Crimean scenario. However, caution prevailed. England did not have a strong ground army to confront Russia in the Balkans and the Caucasus, not to mention the impossibility of its normal supply. But there was no “cannon fodder” - allies who would like to fight the Russians. London tried to provoke Vienna to oppose Russia. However, Austria also showed caution. Without strong allies, such as Germany and France, Russia had every opportunity to defeat the Austrian army in the Balkan Theater and provoke a split in the Habsburg empire, with the separation of Hungary and Slavic regions. In addition, Austria has not yet recovered from the defeat of 1866.
24 December 1877, the defeated Ottoman Empire appealed to the great powers to mediate in peace negotiations. Only London responded. The English government notified St. Petersburg about this. The Russian chancellor and foreign minister, Alexander Gorchakov, said that if Porta wants to end the war, then she should apply for a truce directly to the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The endowment of the truce depended on the preliminary adoption of the provisions of the future peace agreement. At the same time, the Russian government reaffirmed its readiness to transfer to the discussion of an international conference those clauses of the treaty that affect "common European interests".
8 January 1878, the Port appealed to the Russian commander-in-chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich, requesting an armistice. The offensive of the Russian army was developing successfully, so the Russian high command and the government did not hurry with the actual start of negotiations. In addition, Vienna expressed dissatisfaction with the conditions of peace conveyed to it, which agitated Tsar Alexander II and Gorchakov. On January 17, Alexander ordered the commander-in-chief not to present the Russian “foundations of the world” to the Turks at once, and request their own proposals regarding the conditions for the cessation of hostilities. “It is important for us to gain time,” Gorchakov noted, “in order to come to an agreement with Austria.”
On January 20, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich received the Turkish delegates at Kazanlak (where the Russian main apartment was located at that time) and asked what conditions of peace the Port offers. The Turks replied that they did not have instructions to this effect and were sent only to receive Russian conditions. Then the king’s brother, violating instructions, informed the Russian conditions of peace. The next day, the Turkish commissioners rejected most of the Russian demands. However, they were informed that these conditions are not subject to change, and so long as Turkey is not an example of them, there will be no truce. The Turks requested instructions from the Sultan. More than a week they have been waiting for a response. At this time, the Russian army continued its march on Tsargrad.
On January 22, the Russian commander-in-chief proposed that the tsar take Constantinople and Gallipoli in order to prevent the English fleet from entering the straits. However, he was forbidden to do it. It's obvious that it was a strategic mistake of Petersburg. It was necessary to take Constantinople and the flow zone in order to negotiate with defeated Turkey and the Western powers from this position. By controlling the straits, we ensured the protection of the Russian Black Sea region and the southern strategic direction, excluding the possibility of a repetition of the Crimean scenario. England could not threaten us, relying on the base in the straits. Germany would not oppose Russia. In addition, Berlin could be neutralized by promising him support in the final resolution of the French question, which Bismarck so desired. The weakened France, after the defeat of Prussia in 1870, could not fight with Russia. Austria, without the support of Germany, also would not have decided to go to war with Russia. England remained alone. Without strong allies, the British could only threaten.
However, St. Petersburg went on about the western "partners." The Russian army was allowed to enter Constantinople only with the permission of the Turks themselves or the requests of representatives of foreign powers. "In the case of the entry of foreign fleets," it was proposed "to enter into a friendly agreement with the commanders of squadrons regarding the establishment of order in the city by general forces." Even "in the case of a foreign landing force in Constantinople" it was prescribed to "avoid any collision with it, leaving our troops under the walls of the city."
Thus, despite the decisive victory of the Russian army and the possibility of dictating the Porte any conditions of peace, having solved Russia's age-old national tasks, St. Petersburg was frightened by his brilliant victory and took a hesitant position, which later allowed the West to take away from the Russian Empire most of the fruits of victory of the historical enemy. .
In England they were confused. Russians were on the verge of a historic victory. The British Cabinet continually discussed the situation. Queen Victoria wrote hysterical letters to the prime minister, saying that "if she were a man, she would immediately go and beat the Russians." The surrender of the army of Osman Pasha in Pleven, the fall of Shipka, the defeat of the armies of Suleiman and Mukhtar and the approach of the Russians to the capital, made a terrible alarm in Constantinople. Parliament demanded a change of government and an immediate end to the war with Russia. Sultan Abdul-Hamid II prepared to flee to Asia, the remnants of the army were demoralized, chaos everywhere. Turkish Sultan was afraid to ask England to send a fleet into the straits. Obviously, he was afraid that he would be trapped in his capital between the Russian troops and the British fleet.
London asked Vienna: Will Austria not announce mobilization? The Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, Andrássy, was ready to take that step. But at the request of the military command, which took a guarded stance, knowing the weakness of the army, gave a repeated refusal. January 23 British Cabinet decided to send a fleet into the straits. Parliament has been asked to 6 million pounds for military training. In protest against this decision, two ministers - the Lords of Derby and Carnarvon, resigned. But then a telegram arrived that the Turks accepted the conditions of the Russians. Then the Sultan asked either to refuse the direction of the fleet, or to publicly declare that the British fleet was directed against his will. The English Cabinet reversed its decision. Lord Derby (foreign minister) returned to his post and restrained the belligerent attitude of Prime Minister Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield).
31 January 1878 of the year in Adrianople, amid complete military defeat and inability to protect the capital, the Turks signed an armistice agreement. It included Porta’s consent to the preliminary peace terms offered to her.
Vienna demanded the transfer of the condition of the future world to the discussion of an international conference. The Austrians reported that the Russian conditions of peace violate, in their opinion, the former Reichstadt and Budapest agreements between Russia and Austria-Hungary. The Bulgarian principality was designed so extensive that a new large Slavic state arose in the Balkans. This changed the balance of power in the Balkans, which worried Vienna. Meanwhile, in the Reichstadt and Budapest, it was precisely this that was agreed not to allow. After some hesitation, London joined the request of Vienna to convene a conference. Petersburg did not dare to defend its position, going to conflict with Vienna and London. The tsarist government officially agreed to pass on to the discussion of the international congress the conditions of a future peace treaty.
Meanwhile, in London continued hysterics. Disraeli ordered Admiral Hornby to go to the Dardanelles. The Cabinet of Ministers adopted the relevant decision 8 February. In this case, the admiral was told that he must obtain permission from the Sultan to pass the ships. The fleet moved into the Dardanelles and, entering the strait, the ships anchored, waiting for the sultan's permission. Without waiting for permission, Admiral Hornby headed back to Bezik Bay. Abdul-Hamid was afraid to give permission for the passage of the British fleet to Constantinople, because of the fear that in response the Russian troops would occupy the city and it would become a place of collision between the two great powers.
Petersburg was also a mess. Learning about the movement of the British fleet to Constantinople, the king of February 10 decided to give permission to send Russian troops to Constantinople. Gorchakov and the Minister of War Milutin opposed such a decision. The emperor changed his mind: only the landing of the British troops was to be a signal for the seizure of the Turkish capital. Then Alexander II changed his mind again and was inclined to occupy Constantinople. It all ended with an unexpected decision: one order after another was passed to the commander-in-chief.
Meanwhile, the British fleet 12 February again received instructions to go to the Sea of Marmara, even without the permission of the Sultan's government. The British fleet passed the Dardanelles and February 15 anchored off the Princes' Islands. The fleet passed the strait without the permission of the Sultan and violated the 1871 convention of the year. In response, the Russian army advanced to the western suburbs of Constantinople, the town of San Stefano. The British government threatened that the entry of Russian troops into Constantinople would lead to a rupture of diplomatic relations. Vienna also stated that the appearance of Russian troops in Constantinople would lead to a rupture.
Signing the San Stefan Treaty
Peaceful agreement
3 March 1878, the San Stefan World was signed. On the Russian side, the contract was signed by the former Russian ambassador to Constantinople, Count Nikolai Ignatiev, and the head of the diplomatic office of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the Balkans and the future ambassador A. I. Nelidov. With Turkish - Foreign Minister Savfet Pasha and Ambassador to Germany Saadullah Pasha.
At that time, in Russian diplomacy, the supporters of the conciliatory, cautious line — Gorchakov — were winning up; his closest employees in the Foreign Ministry — Girs, Jomini, one of the most influential ambassadors P. Shuvalov in London. However, the supporter was led by a supporter of the great-power Russian policy, the former ambassador to Turkey - N. Ignatiev. Therefore, the conditions of peace dictated by Turkey as a whole met the national interests of Russia.
The peace treaty significantly expanded the territory of Bulgaria. A new autonomous Slavic state (princedom) was created in the Balkans - Bulgaria, which included ethnic Bulgarian territories in Mesia, Thrace and Macedonia. Bulgaria stretched from the Danube to the Aegean Sea, from the Black Sea to the Ohrid Lake and had to be under Russian control for two years, after which to get full autonomy by paying Turkey a nominal tribute. The Turks lost the right to remain within Bulgaria.
The Treaty of San Stefano also recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, and their territory increased. So, Montenegro was supposed to get the port on the Adriatic Sea, Romania - Northern Dobrudja. The Turks pledged to carry out reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the interests of the Christian population, as well as similar changes in Crete, Epirus, Thessaly and Western Armenia. Russia returned to the south-western part of Bessarabia, in the Caucasus, Turkey was inferior - Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum. Turkey pledged to pay 1,410 billion rubles. contributions, but most of the payments were covered at the expense of territorial concessions to Russia. The question of the straits in this agreement was not raised.
Thus, in general, the Treaty of San Stefano was in the interests of Russia and the Balkan peoples. However, Russia did not solve the problem of Constantinople and the straits in its favor. Petersburg did not dare to confront the West (mainly London and Vienna), although the options were, in particular, an agreement with Berlin and a military challenge. Turkey was already completely defeated and could not fight. Austria-Hungary has not yet recovered from 1866's defeat of the year. England alone would not fight with Russia.
Despite the fact that Russia did not occupy Constantinople and the straits, the Treaty of San Stefan did not suit England and Austria. London feared that Russia would take dominant positions in the Balkans and, by including Bulgaria in its sphere of influence, would receive a strategic foothold on the peninsula and access to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the new borders of Bulgaria came so close to Constantinople that the Turkish capital and the straits were under the constant threat of a strike by Russian troops from the Bulgarian springboard.
Vienna expressed similar concerns. In the Reichstadt and Budapest it was agreed that the creation of a large Slavic state in the Balkans would not be allowed. In its draft, the Constantinople Conference divided Bulgaria into two parts along the meridional direction: Western Bulgaria was to fall into the Austrian sphere of influence. Now Russia has abandoned these agreements and projects. Bulgaria was created as a single state and occupied a significant part of the peninsula. This did not suit Vienna: the Austrians did not want to part with the plans of their rule in the peninsula.
Information