Anti-aircraft missile systems of Soviet and Russian origin as the main threat to American combat aviation
In a recent post "Features of combat training of pilots of the Air Force and the US Navy." Who are American pilots preparing to fight with? ” one of the readers, in the spirit of humorist Mikhail Zadornov, lamented the dullness of the Americans who use fighter with red stars painted in colors uncharacteristic of the US Air Force and Navy in the Aggressors squadrons. A question was also asked when was the last time in a close air combat from aviation the enemy’s plane was shot down by the cannon and stated: “Pilots shoot missiles at each other from a distance of tens, if not hundreds of kilometers,” and therefore the visualization of aircraft designating an enemy air train is not needed. However, few readers can name the last case of a successful combat use of an anti-aircraft missile against a manned American combat aircraft. Nevertheless, “dumb Americans” consider ground-based air defense systems to be no less a threat than enemy fighters.
As you know, the first victims of the Soviet CA-75 Dvina anti-aircraft missile system were high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft of the American production RB-57 and U-2, which flew over the territory of the People's Republic of China, the USSR and Cuba. Although this air defense system was originally primarily intended to counter high-altitude reconnaissance and strategic bombers, it showed itself well in the course of hostilities in Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Americans contemptuously called the B-750В missiles flying "telegraph poles", but at the same time they had to spend considerable forces and means to counter air defense missile systems: develop evasion tactics, allocate strike suppression groups and equip their planes with active jamming stations.
Of course, the anti-aircraft complexes of the C-75 family were not devoid of a number of significant drawbacks. Mobility and time of deployment-coagulation left much to be desired, which inevitably affected vulnerability. Many problems created the need for refueling missiles with liquid fuel and oxidant. The complex was single-channel in purpose and often successfully suppressed by organized interference. Nevertheless, the C-75 air defense missile systems of various modifications, exported to the end of 1980-s, during local conflicts, managed to have a significant impact on the course of hostilities, becoming the most belligerent anti-aircraft missile systems and one of the main threats to American aircraft.
Despite the considerable age, the C-75 air defense system still carries combat duty in Vietnam, Egypt, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, North Korea, Romania, Syria. The Chinese version of the HQ-2 is in service with the People's Republic of China and Iran. Given that some of these countries are considered by the United States as potential rivals, the American command has to reckon with the presence of even outdated, but still having a certain combat potential complexes.
Since the first clash with the Soviet air defense system, American intelligence has offered great efforts to get to know them in detail, which would make it possible to develop countermeasures. For the first time, American specialists were able to get acquainted in detail with the elements of C-75 captured by Israelis in Egypt at the beginning of the 1970's. In the course of the “War of attrition”, Israeli special forces conducted a successful operation to capture the P-12 radar, which is used as a radar reconnaissance station of an anti-aircraft missile division. The radar was removed from the position on the external load of the CH-53 helicopter. Having gained access to the elements of the air defense system and the radar, Israeli and American experts were able to develop recommendations on countermeasures and received the most valuable material for conducting EW against Soviet air defense systems. But even before that, at air test sites in the United States, mock-ups of anti-aircraft complexes appeared, on which American pilots learned to fight them.
The most effective methods turned out to be: a breakthrough to the position of the air defense missile system at a low altitude, below the boundaries of defeat of the Zour and diving followed by bombing in the “dead funnel”. Although even the latest C-75 modifications are outdated, there are still quite a few target positions on the American test sites that are regularly hit by air strikes during the exercises.
After the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979, Western intelligence had the opportunity to familiarize themselves in detail with the latest models of Soviet equipment and weapons. As is known, the Soviet leadership, fearing that modern air defense systems would enter China, refrained from supplying the newest models of air defense systems to Vietnam. On the contrary, our "Arab friends" fighting the "Israeli military" got the most modern at that time. weapon. The equipment delivered to Egypt differed from the one that was on combat duty in the USSR Air Defense forces in the middle of the 1970-s only by the system of state recognition and the simplified execution of some elements. Acquaintance of American experts even with export models caused a huge damage to the defense capability of the Soviet air defense forces. After the cessation of the Soviet-Egyptian military-technical cooperation in Egypt, in addition to the CA-75М, which were well-known to Americans in Vietnam, there were also medium-range air defense systems C-75М with B-755 missile systems, low-altitude C-125 with B-601P missiles, military squares "Kvadrat", ASUK-1МE, radars: П-12, П-14, П-15, П-35. It is clear that the copying of Soviet-made equipment and armaments was not discussed, the Americans were primarily interested in the characteristics of the detection range and radar immunity, the operating stations of the guidance stations, the sensitivity and operating frequencies of radiodetectors of missiles, the size of dead zones of the air defense missile system and the ability to fight airborne targets at small heights. The study of the characteristics of the Soviet air defense system and radar was carried out by specialists from the laboratory of the US Department of Defense of the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville (Alabama), on the basis of which recommendations were made to develop methods, techniques and means of counteraction.
Taking into account the fact that in Cairo and Alexandria, enterprises were built for the repair and maintenance of radio equipment and elements of anti-aircraft systems, secret intelligence documentation with a detailed description of Soviet-made air defense systems and modes of operation was at the disposal of Western intelligence services. However, the Egyptians sold Soviet military secrets to everyone. So the Chinese got at their disposal the C-75M Volga and B-755 missiles, thanks to which the HQ-2J ADMS appeared in the PRC. After studying the MiG-23 fighter, the Chinese designers, due to the high complexity of the task, decided to abandon the construction of a fighter with a variable geometry wing. And on the basis of several operational-tactical complexes 9K72 "Elbrus" transferred by Egypt and a package of technical documentation in North Korea, production of its own analogues of the Soviet PRP P-17 was launched.
At the end of the 1980-x, Western intelligence services had a number of Soviet-made equipment and armaments captured in Chad. Among the trophies of the French contingent was fully operational SAM Kvadrat, which was more modern than those that were in Egypt.
At the end of 1991, in the state of New Mexico, a Osa-AK self-propelled short-range air defense system was tested at the White Sands test site. The country, from where it was delivered to the USA, is still undisclosed. But based on the test date, it can be assumed that this mobile short-range air defense complex was captured by US troops in Iraq.
Immediately after the liquidation of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany, the anti-aircraft missile systems used by the army of the GDR became the object of close attention of Western experts. In the second half of 1992, two German air defense systems Osa-AKM were delivered to the Eglin airbase by heavy military transport aircraft C-5В. Together with the mobile complexes arrived German calculations. According to the published information, field tests with real launches on air targets in Florida lasted more than two months, and during the shooting several radio-controlled air targets were shot down.
After the liquidation of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States had air defense systems that Americans could not even dream of before. For some time, Western experts were at a loss, not knowing where to begin the study of the wealth that had fallen on their heads. At the beginning of the 1990s in the United States, several working groups were formed, staffed by military and civilian specialists. Tests were conducted at the sites Tonopah and Nellis (Nevada), Eglin (Florida), White Sands (New Mexico). The main testing center for Soviet air defense systems in 1990 has become the vast Tonopah test site in Nevada, which is larger in area than the much more famous Nevada nuclear test site located nearby.
Although Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria managed to get the C-300PMU anti-aircraft missile systems (an export version of the C-300PS) before the liquidation of the ATS, and NATO experts had access to them, these countries chose to keep modern air defense systems in their possession.
As a result, the Americans went to the trick, acquiring in parts the elements of the C-300PT / PS and C-300В offensive systems in Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. In Ukraine, 35D6 and 36D6М radars were purchased, which were part of the C-300PT / PS regimental air defense system kit, as well as the 96Л6Е high-altitude detector. At the first stage, the radar equipment was thoroughly tested, and then used during combat exercises of the Air Force, Navy and USMC.
By the middle of 1990, in addition to the C-300, the American defense research centers had a wide range of Soviet-made air defense equipment: Shilka ZSU-23-4, Strela-3 and Igla-1 MANPADS, 1 ”,“ Strela-10 ”,“ Osa-AKM ”,“ Cube ”and“ Circle ”, as well as object-based air defense systems С-75М3 and С-125М1. From an unnamed country of Eastern Europe to the United States, the C-200VE air defense system was delivered. Before the dissolution of the ATS, long-range complexes of this type were supplied to Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and Czechoslovakia from the middle of the 1980's.
In addition to the anti-aircraft complexes, the Americans were very much interested in the capabilities of our radar for detecting airborne targets and radar stations. In polygon conditions with the participation of American combat aircraft were tested radar instrumentation complex RPK-1 "VAZ", radar P-15, P-18, P-19, P-37, P-40, 35-X6, 36-XXNUM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 6-X9, 16-XXNXM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 17-X18, 35-X6 and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 36D6, XNUMXDXNUMXM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, XNUMXDXNUMX, XNUMXDXNUMXM and the highest forces, and radio systems, and radio systems, and radio sets, and radio sets, and radio sets. , PDF-XNUMX, PDF-XNUMX. At the same time, the P-XNUMX, XNUMXDXNUMX and XNUMXDXNNXM radars showed the best results in the detection of aircraft made with elements of low radar visibility. A thorough study of the characteristics of radar and guidance stations of anti-aircraft missile systems has allowed us to improve the equipment for jamming and to develop recommendations for methods of evasion and combat ground-based air defense systems.
After a detailed study, removal of characteristics and testing, the Americans moved to the next stage. Soviet equipment was placed on combat land use aviation sites, and with its use mass training of pilots of the Air Force, Navy, ILC and Army Aviation began. American pilots practiced tactical techniques to overcome Soviet-style air defense systems and learned in practice how to use electronic jamming equipment and aircraft weapons. Since the second half of the 1990-x pilots of American attack aircraft were able to conduct combat training using radars and guidance stations Soviet-made anti-aircraft missiles. This made it possible in the process of learning to reproduce as much as possible the high-frequency signals characteristic of the air defense systems of the states at the disposal of which are the targets of potential attacks by American aircraft.
During the exercise, the aircraft was considered “conditionally shot down” if it was within the range of the air defense missile system for a certain time at a distance of 2 / 3 from the maximum strike range and at the same time the tracking was not disrupted.
In the US Air Force, the main centers for testing Soviet anti-aircraft systems were the landfills located in the state of Nevada near the Nellis, Fallon and Tonopah airbases, as well as in Florida near the Eglin and Mecdil airbases. To give more realism on the grounds, several runways were built imitating enemy airfields, target complexes with various structures, trains, air defense systems, bridges, armored columns and long-term defense units.
Satellite image of Google Earth: Layout of the position ZRK in the vicinity of the airbase Makdil, in the center of the position is a radar simulator with a parabolic antenna
The crews of the EA-6 Prowler and EA-18 Growler “flying jamming” crews and methods of using anti-radar guided missiles tested their actions on real samples of radar technology. The leader in such exercises was the landfills in the vicinity of the Nellis airbase and Fallon, where from 1996 to 2012 the year 4-6 once a year passed exercises to combat air defense systems and destroy ground targets. Particular attention was paid to electronic suppression. American pilots learned to operate in conditions of unstable radio communications, relying mainly on inertial navigation aids. The American command quite reasonably believes that in the event of a collision with a strong adversary, radio communication and the channels of the satellite and pulsed radio-navigation system TACAN can be very likely to be suppressed.
Currently, the intensity of such exercises has decreased by about 3 times, and most of the Soviet-made equipment is concentrated at the sites of the Nellis, Eglin, White Sands and Fort Stewart military bases. Some radars and missile guidance stations are occasionally used during exercises, but the main focus in recent 15 years has been on radar simulators.
Satellite image of Google Earth: self-propelled launcher OTR P-17, SAM "Osa-AKM", "Cube", ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" and the BTR-70 on the range located to the south of the military base Fort Stewart. Behind at the site simulators of the regimes of the SNR of Soviet air defense systems
During the operation of the Soviet radio systems, Americans faced difficulties in maintaining them in working condition. Most of the equipment lacked English technical documentation and there was a shortage of spare parts. Electronic components built on electrovacuum devices required frequent adjustment and adjustment, which implied the involvement of highly qualified specialists. As a result, the leadership of the US DoD found it irrational and too costly to use original Soviet radars for routine training and concluded contracts for the development of radar simulators with private companies involved in the combat training process.
At the first stage, the creation of the AN / MPS-T1 simulator that reproduces the radiation of the SNR-75 guidance station of the C-75 anti-aircraft missiles from the C-XNUMX SAM system was involved in the creation of telecommunication systems and satellite communications equipment.
The hardware van of the guidance station was transferred to another towed platform, and the electronic part was subjected to complete processing. After the transition to a modern element base, it was possible to reduce energy consumption and significantly increase reliability. The task was facilitated by the fact that the equipment was only supposed to reproduce the operating modes of the CHP-75; the actual guidance of the missiles was not required.
The simulator can be controlled by an automated workplace by one operator. In addition to the US military, the AN / MPS-T1 equipment was shipped to the UK.
The first center simulating the work of Soviet radars and ZUR guidance stations began work at the Winston Field airfield in Texas. In 2002, the US Air Force commenced regular training for the crews of the B-52H 2-th bomber air wing from the US Air Force Base Barksdale and B-1B-7 Bomber Air Wing Head from the US Air Force Dyce. After installing additional emitters and expanding the list of reproducible threats, tactical aircraft of the US Air Force, as well as AC-130 and MS-130 special purpose aviation joined the training flights in this area.
The next step was the creation of a simulator of the SNR-125 missile guidance station, which is part of the S-125 low-altitude air defense system. For this, the specialists of DRS Training & Control Systems, with minimal changes, used the original Soviet-made antenna post and new generators on a solid-state element base. This model received the designation AN / MPQ-T3.
However, the Americans did not have a sufficient number of CHP-125 antenna posts, and several modified AN / MPQ-T3A stations were built. In this case, parabolic antennas were placed on the roof of the towed van. In addition to the operating modes of the C-125 SAM, the equipment is capable of reproducing the radiation from the OSA and the radar of the MiG-23ML and MiG-25PD fighters.
Equipment designed to simulate the radar signals of the Cube ADMS is known as AN / MPQ-T13. Antenna post self-propelled installation intelligence and guidance 1C91 installed on the open area associated with a towed wagon.
Also, the Americans attended to the reproduction of one of the most common Soviet-made P-37 stations. At DRS Training & Control Systems in Fort Walton Beach, the Soviet radar has been redesigned to enable long-term operation at minimal cost. The appearance of the P-37 station, which received the designation AN / MPS-T9 in the US Air Force, practically did not change, but the internal filling has changed dramatically.
About 10 years ago, Northrop Grumman began producing towed universal ARTS-V1 simulators. The equipment placed on the towed platforms, developed by the company, gives out radar radiation repeating the combat work of medium and short-range air defense missile systems: C-75, C-125, Osa, Thor, Cube and Buk.
The ARTS-V1 equipment includes its own radar and optoelectronic devices capable of independently detecting and tracking aircraft. In total, the US Department of Defense acquired 23 equipment set with a total value of $ 75 million, which allows it to be used during exercises not only in American territory, but also abroad. More 7 kits were delivered to foreign customers.
In the past 5 years, multisystem AN / МСТ-Т1А simulators manufactured by the US Dynamics Corporation have been actively used at American test sites. Stations of this type are capable of reproducing high-frequency radiation from most of the anti-aircraft missile systems with radio command and radar guidance systems used by potential US opponents.
As part of the multisystem simulator AN / MCT-T1A, in addition to the radio frequency signal generators, the AN / MPQ-50 radar is used from the US-made MIM-23 HAWK air defense system. This allows the operator to independently control the airspace in the vicinity of the landfill and quickly target the generators at the approaching aircraft.
According to information from publicly available sources, Lockheed Martin received a contract worth $ 108 million for the supply of mobile sets of ARTS-V20 equipment to 2, which should simulate the emission of long-range anti-aircraft missile systems. Although the type of air defense systems is not disclosed, apparently, we are talking about long-range C-300PM2, C-300B4, C-400 and Chinese HQ-9А. According to American sources, research is currently being conducted on the creation of ARTS-V3, but so far there is no reliable information regarding this equipment.
According to the command, American pilots must be able to work in a difficult jamming environment, which can happen in the event of a collision with a technologically advanced enemy. In this case, there is a high probability of disrupting the operation of satellite navigation systems, radar altimeters and communications. In such conditions, the flight crew will have to rely on inertial navigation and their own skills.
The EWITR and AN / MLQ-Т4 stations are intended to recreate the work of the Russian EW systems that suppress onboard radar, communications and navigation equipment available on American military aircraft.
If the EWITR equipment was built in a single copy, then the more advanced AN / MLQ-Т4 station with an optoelectronic tracking system for air targets was deployed on several Air Force and Navy ranges.
Although the American polygons have radar facilities that reproduce anti-aircraft systems that pose a threat to combat aircraft of the Air Force and the US Navy, the US military does not miss a chance to practice on real modern complexes. In the past, American pilots have repeatedly learned to deal with Russian C-300P airplanes at C-300PMU / PMU-1, which are in service in Bulgaria, Greece and Slovakia. Relatively recently, information was given to the public that in the 2008 year, the Kupol target detection station and self-propelled firing system, which are part of the Buk-М1 air defense system, were tested at the Eglin range. From which country these combat vehicles were delivered to the USA is not known. Possible importers could be Greece, Georgia, Ukraine and Finland. There is also evidence that the Thor short-range air defense system was delivered to the USA from Ukraine. In 2018, it became known about the purchase by the US military in Ukraine of a three-coordinate radar combat mode 36D6М1-1. After the collapse of the USSR, 36Д6 radar stations produced in Ukraine were widely exported, including to Russia and Iran. Ten years ago, the Americans had already acquired one 36D6M radar. According to information published in the American media, the radar purchased in Ukraine was used during testing of new cruise missiles and the F-35 fighter, as well as during aviation exercises based on the Nellis base.
To train pilots to visually detect the launch of anti-aircraft missiles and to bring the situation closer to combat, from the middle of the 1990-s, Smokie SAM equipment is used in the training process, with a Cube radar signal generator and a pyrotechnic simulator launched by a missile defense system. This stationary equipment operates at a test site in the vicinity of the Nellis air base in Nevada.
In 2005, in 2005, ESCO Technologies created the AN / VPQ-1 TRTG mobile radar simulator, reproducing the operation of the Cube, Osa and ZSU-23-4 radar systems.
The AN / VPQ-1 TRTG radar equipment deployed on various mobile chassis is usually used in conjunction with GTR-18 Smokey unguided rockets, which visually mimic the launch of the missile defense system, which in turn allows the training environment to be as close as possible to the real one. The most common modification is mounted on the chassis of an all-terrain pickup truck that tows a trailer with simulated rockets. At the moment, AN / VPQ-1 TRTG mobile kits are being actively used in the US military and NATO allies.
Although it is widely believed among ordinary people that MANPADS are extremely effective, it is greatly exaggerated. In real combat operations, the probability of hitting air targets when launching anti-aircraft missiles of portable complexes is relatively small. Nevertheless, the US Department of Defense, due to the high prevalence and high mobility of such complexes, launched a program to create simulators, which allow us to assess the likelihood of destruction of MANPADS when entering the zone of action and to work out an avoidance maneuver.
The next step was the creation by AEgis Technologies in conjunction with the US Army Aviation and Missile Center (AMRDEC) of the towed remotely controlled MANPADS installation with a reusable MANPAD surrogate missile system equipped with an optoelectronic guidance system.
The main purpose of the MANPADS facility is to train aircraft crews and helicopters to avoid evasion maneuvers and to test the use of countermeasures. Particular attention to the exclusion of hitting the aircraft was paid to realism and the coincidence of speeds and trajectories with real missiles and the possibility of their repeated use. Also, the thermal signature of the training rocket engine should have been close to that actually used in combat. The microprocessor of the rocket is programmed so that it should not, under any circumstances, get into the aircraft. At the end of the active part of the flight of the rocket parachute rescue system is activated. After replacing the solid motor, electric batteries and testing, it can be reused.
Currently, there are more 50 simulators of radar and missile guidance stations, as well as jammers, in American test centers and test sites. These rather complex and expensive systems are used in the course of testing new types of aircraft, avionics and aircraft weapons. In addition, the stations, reproducing the work of enemy detection systems, electronic warfare and anti-aircraft missile systems, can maximize the realism of training to overcome enemy air defense and increase the chances of survival of pilots in a combat situation. It is clear that the leadership of the US military, on the basis of existing experience and despite significant expenses, is trying to prepare the flight personnel to the extent necessary for a possible collision with an enemy with anti-aircraft systems of Soviet and Russian production.
B-750B anti-aircraft missile from the CA-75М air defense missile system on the CM-90 launcher at the Hanoi Aviation Museum
The study of Soviet air defense systems in 1970-1980-s
As you know, the first victims of the Soviet CA-75 Dvina anti-aircraft missile system were high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft of the American production RB-57 and U-2, which flew over the territory of the People's Republic of China, the USSR and Cuba. Although this air defense system was originally primarily intended to counter high-altitude reconnaissance and strategic bombers, it showed itself well in the course of hostilities in Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Americans contemptuously called the B-750В missiles flying "telegraph poles", but at the same time they had to spend considerable forces and means to counter air defense missile systems: develop evasion tactics, allocate strike suppression groups and equip their planes with active jamming stations.
Of course, the anti-aircraft complexes of the C-75 family were not devoid of a number of significant drawbacks. Mobility and time of deployment-coagulation left much to be desired, which inevitably affected vulnerability. Many problems created the need for refueling missiles with liquid fuel and oxidant. The complex was single-channel in purpose and often successfully suppressed by organized interference. Nevertheless, the C-75 air defense missile systems of various modifications, exported to the end of 1980-s, during local conflicts, managed to have a significant impact on the course of hostilities, becoming the most belligerent anti-aircraft missile systems and one of the main threats to American aircraft.
Despite the considerable age, the C-75 air defense system still carries combat duty in Vietnam, Egypt, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, North Korea, Romania, Syria. The Chinese version of the HQ-2 is in service with the People's Republic of China and Iran. Given that some of these countries are considered by the United States as potential rivals, the American command has to reckon with the presence of even outdated, but still having a certain combat potential complexes.
Since the first clash with the Soviet air defense system, American intelligence has offered great efforts to get to know them in detail, which would make it possible to develop countermeasures. For the first time, American specialists were able to get acquainted in detail with the elements of C-75 captured by Israelis in Egypt at the beginning of the 1970's. In the course of the “War of attrition”, Israeli special forces conducted a successful operation to capture the P-12 radar, which is used as a radar reconnaissance station of an anti-aircraft missile division. The radar was removed from the position on the external load of the CH-53 helicopter. Having gained access to the elements of the air defense system and the radar, Israeli and American experts were able to develop recommendations on countermeasures and received the most valuable material for conducting EW against Soviet air defense systems. But even before that, at air test sites in the United States, mock-ups of anti-aircraft complexes appeared, on which American pilots learned to fight them.
Satellite image of Google Earth: Layout of the position of the C-75 air defense system in the vicinity of Cannon air base, New Mexico
The most effective methods turned out to be: a breakthrough to the position of the air defense missile system at a low altitude, below the boundaries of defeat of the Zour and diving followed by bombing in the “dead funnel”. Although even the latest C-75 modifications are outdated, there are still quite a few target positions on the American test sites that are regularly hit by air strikes during the exercises.
After the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979, Western intelligence had the opportunity to familiarize themselves in detail with the latest models of Soviet equipment and weapons. As is known, the Soviet leadership, fearing that modern air defense systems would enter China, refrained from supplying the newest models of air defense systems to Vietnam. On the contrary, our "Arab friends" fighting the "Israeli military" got the most modern at that time. weapon. The equipment delivered to Egypt differed from the one that was on combat duty in the USSR Air Defense forces in the middle of the 1970-s only by the system of state recognition and the simplified execution of some elements. Acquaintance of American experts even with export models caused a huge damage to the defense capability of the Soviet air defense forces. After the cessation of the Soviet-Egyptian military-technical cooperation in Egypt, in addition to the CA-75М, which were well-known to Americans in Vietnam, there were also medium-range air defense systems C-75М with B-755 missile systems, low-altitude C-125 with B-601P missiles, military squares "Kvadrat", ASUK-1МE, radars: П-12, П-14, П-15, П-35. It is clear that the copying of Soviet-made equipment and armaments was not discussed, the Americans were primarily interested in the characteristics of the detection range and radar immunity, the operating stations of the guidance stations, the sensitivity and operating frequencies of radiodetectors of missiles, the size of dead zones of the air defense missile system and the ability to fight airborne targets at small heights. The study of the characteristics of the Soviet air defense system and radar was carried out by specialists from the laboratory of the US Department of Defense of the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville (Alabama), on the basis of which recommendations were made to develop methods, techniques and means of counteraction.
Taking into account the fact that in Cairo and Alexandria, enterprises were built for the repair and maintenance of radio equipment and elements of anti-aircraft systems, secret intelligence documentation with a detailed description of Soviet-made air defense systems and modes of operation was at the disposal of Western intelligence services. However, the Egyptians sold Soviet military secrets to everyone. So the Chinese got at their disposal the C-75M Volga and B-755 missiles, thanks to which the HQ-2J ADMS appeared in the PRC. After studying the MiG-23 fighter, the Chinese designers, due to the high complexity of the task, decided to abandon the construction of a fighter with a variable geometry wing. And on the basis of several operational-tactical complexes 9K72 "Elbrus" transferred by Egypt and a package of technical documentation in North Korea, production of its own analogues of the Soviet PRP P-17 was launched.
Self-propelled installation of intelligence and guidance 1С91 from the Kvadrat air defense system in the parking lot in the vicinity of the Yuma, Arizona airbase
At the end of the 1980-x, Western intelligence services had a number of Soviet-made equipment and armaments captured in Chad. Among the trophies of the French contingent was fully operational SAM Kvadrat, which was more modern than those that were in Egypt.
The study of Soviet air defense systems in 1990-ies
At the end of 1991, in the state of New Mexico, a Osa-AK self-propelled short-range air defense system was tested at the White Sands test site. The country, from where it was delivered to the USA, is still undisclosed. But based on the test date, it can be assumed that this mobile short-range air defense complex was captured by US troops in Iraq.
Immediately after the liquidation of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany, the anti-aircraft missile systems used by the army of the GDR became the object of close attention of Western experts. In the second half of 1992, two German air defense systems Osa-AKM were delivered to the Eglin airbase by heavy military transport aircraft C-5В. Together with the mobile complexes arrived German calculations. According to the published information, field tests with real launches on air targets in Florida lasted more than two months, and during the shooting several radio-controlled air targets were shot down.
After the liquidation of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States had air defense systems that Americans could not even dream of before. For some time, Western experts were at a loss, not knowing where to begin the study of the wealth that had fallen on their heads. At the beginning of the 1990s in the United States, several working groups were formed, staffed by military and civilian specialists. Tests were conducted at the sites Tonopah and Nellis (Nevada), Eglin (Florida), White Sands (New Mexico). The main testing center for Soviet air defense systems in 1990 has become the vast Tonopah test site in Nevada, which is larger in area than the much more famous Nevada nuclear test site located nearby.
Although Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria managed to get the C-300PMU anti-aircraft missile systems (an export version of the C-300PS) before the liquidation of the ATS, and NATO experts had access to them, these countries chose to keep modern air defense systems in their possession.
Google Earth satellite image: C-300P ground-to-ground missile systems at Tonopah, Nevada
As a result, the Americans went to the trick, acquiring in parts the elements of the C-300PT / PS and C-300В offensive systems in Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. In Ukraine, 35D6 and 36D6М radars were purchased, which were part of the C-300PT / PS regimental air defense system kit, as well as the 96Л6Е high-altitude detector. At the first stage, the radar equipment was thoroughly tested, and then used during combat exercises of the Air Force, Navy and USMC.
ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" at the Eglin range, in Florida
By the middle of 1990, in addition to the C-300, the American defense research centers had a wide range of Soviet-made air defense equipment: Shilka ZSU-23-4, Strela-3 and Igla-1 MANPADS, 1 ”,“ Strela-10 ”,“ Osa-AKM ”,“ Cube ”and“ Circle ”, as well as object-based air defense systems С-75М3 and С-125М1. From an unnamed country of Eastern Europe to the United States, the C-200VE air defense system was delivered. Before the dissolution of the ATS, long-range complexes of this type were supplied to Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and Czechoslovakia from the middle of the 1980's.
In addition to the anti-aircraft complexes, the Americans were very much interested in the capabilities of our radar for detecting airborne targets and radar stations. In polygon conditions with the participation of American combat aircraft were tested radar instrumentation complex RPK-1 "VAZ", radar P-15, P-18, P-19, P-37, P-40, 35-X6, 36-XXNUM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 6-X9, 16-XXNXM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 17-X18, 35-X6 and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, 36D6, XNUMXDXNUMXM and all of the personnel of the Radiovs, XNUMXDXNUMX, XNUMXDXNUMXM and the highest forces, and radio systems, and radio systems, and radio sets, and radio sets, and radio sets. , PDF-XNUMX, PDF-XNUMX. At the same time, the P-XNUMX, XNUMXDXNUMX and XNUMXDXNNXM radars showed the best results in the detection of aircraft made with elements of low radar visibility. A thorough study of the characteristics of radar and guidance stations of anti-aircraft missile systems has allowed us to improve the equipment for jamming and to develop recommendations for methods of evasion and combat ground-based air defense systems.
Testing the suppression of the Soviet-style air defense system
After a detailed study, removal of characteristics and testing, the Americans moved to the next stage. Soviet equipment was placed on combat land use aviation sites, and with its use mass training of pilots of the Air Force, Navy, ILC and Army Aviation began. American pilots practiced tactical techniques to overcome Soviet-style air defense systems and learned in practice how to use electronic jamming equipment and aircraft weapons. Since the second half of the 1990-x pilots of American attack aircraft were able to conduct combat training using radars and guidance stations Soviet-made anti-aircraft missiles. This made it possible in the process of learning to reproduce as much as possible the high-frequency signals characteristic of the air defense systems of the states at the disposal of which are the targets of potential attacks by American aircraft.
Satellite image of Google Earth: a layout of the position of the air defense system in the vicinity of the airbase Tonopah, Nevada, the image shows traces of explosions of aviation ammunition
During the exercise, the aircraft was considered “conditionally shot down” if it was within the range of the air defense missile system for a certain time at a distance of 2 / 3 from the maximum strike range and at the same time the tracking was not disrupted.
The Strela-10 SAM and AH-64 Apache combat helicopter during joint exercises
In the US Air Force, the main centers for testing Soviet anti-aircraft systems were the landfills located in the state of Nevada near the Nellis, Fallon and Tonopah airbases, as well as in Florida near the Eglin and Mecdil airbases. To give more realism on the grounds, several runways were built imitating enemy airfields, target complexes with various structures, trains, air defense systems, bridges, armored columns and long-term defense units.
Satellite image of Google Earth: Layout of the position ZRK in the vicinity of the airbase Makdil, in the center of the position is a radar simulator with a parabolic antenna
The crews of the EA-6 Prowler and EA-18 Growler “flying jamming” crews and methods of using anti-radar guided missiles tested their actions on real samples of radar technology. The leader in such exercises was the landfills in the vicinity of the Nellis airbase and Fallon, where from 1996 to 2012 the year 4-6 once a year passed exercises to combat air defense systems and destroy ground targets. Particular attention was paid to electronic suppression. American pilots learned to operate in conditions of unstable radio communications, relying mainly on inertial navigation aids. The American command quite reasonably believes that in the event of a collision with a strong adversary, radio communication and the channels of the satellite and pulsed radio-navigation system TACAN can be very likely to be suppressed.
The use of radar and pyrotechnic simulators in the process of combat training
Currently, the intensity of such exercises has decreased by about 3 times, and most of the Soviet-made equipment is concentrated at the sites of the Nellis, Eglin, White Sands and Fort Stewart military bases. Some radars and missile guidance stations are occasionally used during exercises, but the main focus in recent 15 years has been on radar simulators.
Satellite image of Google Earth: self-propelled launcher OTR P-17, SAM "Osa-AKM", "Cube", ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" and the BTR-70 on the range located to the south of the military base Fort Stewart. Behind at the site simulators of the regimes of the SNR of Soviet air defense systems
During the operation of the Soviet radio systems, Americans faced difficulties in maintaining them in working condition. Most of the equipment lacked English technical documentation and there was a shortage of spare parts. Electronic components built on electrovacuum devices required frequent adjustment and adjustment, which implied the involvement of highly qualified specialists. As a result, the leadership of the US DoD found it irrational and too costly to use original Soviet radars for routine training and concluded contracts for the development of radar simulators with private companies involved in the combat training process.
Simulator AN / MPS-T1
At the first stage, the creation of the AN / MPS-T1 simulator that reproduces the radiation of the SNR-75 guidance station of the C-75 anti-aircraft missiles from the C-XNUMX SAM system was involved in the creation of telecommunication systems and satellite communications equipment.
The hardware van of the guidance station was transferred to another towed platform, and the electronic part was subjected to complete processing. After the transition to a modern element base, it was possible to reduce energy consumption and significantly increase reliability. The task was facilitated by the fact that the equipment was only supposed to reproduce the operating modes of the CHP-75; the actual guidance of the missiles was not required.
The simulator can be controlled by an automated workplace by one operator. In addition to the US military, the AN / MPS-T1 equipment was shipped to the UK.
Google Earth Satellite Image: AHNTECH Inc. Site at the Winston Field airport in Texas. Near the buildings are towed by radar simulators, in 30 m to the northeast of the concreted site, the C-75 launcher
The first center simulating the work of Soviet radars and ZUR guidance stations began work at the Winston Field airfield in Texas. In 2002, the US Air Force commenced regular training for the crews of the B-52H 2-th bomber air wing from the US Air Force Base Barksdale and B-1B-7 Bomber Air Wing Head from the US Air Force Dyce. After installing additional emitters and expanding the list of reproducible threats, tactical aircraft of the US Air Force, as well as AC-130 and MS-130 special purpose aviation joined the training flights in this area.
The next step was the creation of a simulator of the SNR-125 missile guidance station, which is part of the S-125 low-altitude air defense system. For this, the specialists of DRS Training & Control Systems, with minimal changes, used the original Soviet-made antenna post and new generators on a solid-state element base. This model received the designation AN / MPQ-T3.
AN / MPQ-T3 radar simulator
However, the Americans did not have a sufficient number of CHP-125 antenna posts, and several modified AN / MPQ-T3A stations were built. In this case, parabolic antennas were placed on the roof of the towed van. In addition to the operating modes of the C-125 SAM, the equipment is capable of reproducing the radiation from the OSA and the radar of the MiG-23ML and MiG-25PD fighters.
AN / MPQ-T3A radar simulator
Equipment designed to simulate the radar signals of the Cube ADMS is known as AN / MPQ-T13. Antenna post self-propelled installation intelligence and guidance 1C91 installed on the open area associated with a towed wagon.
AN / MPQ-T13 radar simulator
Also, the Americans attended to the reproduction of one of the most common Soviet-made P-37 stations. At DRS Training & Control Systems in Fort Walton Beach, the Soviet radar has been redesigned to enable long-term operation at minimal cost. The appearance of the P-37 station, which received the designation AN / MPS-T9 in the US Air Force, practically did not change, but the internal filling has changed dramatically.
Simulator of Soviet standby radar P-37 - AN / MPS-T9
About 10 years ago, Northrop Grumman began producing towed universal ARTS-V1 simulators. The equipment placed on the towed platforms, developed by the company, gives out radar radiation repeating the combat work of medium and short-range air defense missile systems: C-75, C-125, Osa, Thor, Cube and Buk.
ARTS-V1 radar simulator
The ARTS-V1 equipment includes its own radar and optoelectronic devices capable of independently detecting and tracking aircraft. In total, the US Department of Defense acquired 23 equipment set with a total value of $ 75 million, which allows it to be used during exercises not only in American territory, but also abroad. More 7 kits were delivered to foreign customers.
In the past 5 years, multisystem AN / МСТ-Т1А simulators manufactured by the US Dynamics Corporation have been actively used at American test sites. Stations of this type are capable of reproducing high-frequency radiation from most of the anti-aircraft missile systems with radio command and radar guidance systems used by potential US opponents.
Radar simulator AN / МСТ-Т1А
As part of the multisystem simulator AN / MCT-T1A, in addition to the radio frequency signal generators, the AN / MPQ-50 radar is used from the US-made MIM-23 HAWK air defense system. This allows the operator to independently control the airspace in the vicinity of the landfill and quickly target the generators at the approaching aircraft.
According to information from publicly available sources, Lockheed Martin received a contract worth $ 108 million for the supply of mobile sets of ARTS-V20 equipment to 2, which should simulate the emission of long-range anti-aircraft missile systems. Although the type of air defense systems is not disclosed, apparently, we are talking about long-range C-300PM2, C-300B4, C-400 and Chinese HQ-9А. According to American sources, research is currently being conducted on the creation of ARTS-V3, but so far there is no reliable information regarding this equipment.
According to the command, American pilots must be able to work in a difficult jamming environment, which can happen in the event of a collision with a technologically advanced enemy. In this case, there is a high probability of disrupting the operation of satellite navigation systems, radar altimeters and communications. In such conditions, the flight crew will have to rely on inertial navigation and their own skills.
Antenna post station jamming EWITR
The EWITR and AN / MLQ-Т4 stations are intended to recreate the work of the Russian EW systems that suppress onboard radar, communications and navigation equipment available on American military aircraft.
AN / MLQ-T4 jamming station
If the EWITR equipment was built in a single copy, then the more advanced AN / MLQ-Т4 station with an optoelectronic tracking system for air targets was deployed on several Air Force and Navy ranges.
Although the American polygons have radar facilities that reproduce anti-aircraft systems that pose a threat to combat aircraft of the Air Force and the US Navy, the US military does not miss a chance to practice on real modern complexes. In the past, American pilots have repeatedly learned to deal with Russian C-300P airplanes at C-300PMU / PMU-1, which are in service in Bulgaria, Greece and Slovakia. Relatively recently, information was given to the public that in the 2008 year, the Kupol target detection station and self-propelled firing system, which are part of the Buk-М1 air defense system, were tested at the Eglin range. From which country these combat vehicles were delivered to the USA is not known. Possible importers could be Greece, Georgia, Ukraine and Finland. There is also evidence that the Thor short-range air defense system was delivered to the USA from Ukraine. In 2018, it became known about the purchase by the US military in Ukraine of a three-coordinate radar combat mode 36D6М1-1. After the collapse of the USSR, 36Д6 radar stations produced in Ukraine were widely exported, including to Russia and Iran. Ten years ago, the Americans had already acquired one 36D6M radar. According to information published in the American media, the radar purchased in Ukraine was used during testing of new cruise missiles and the F-35 fighter, as well as during aviation exercises based on the Nellis base.
To train pilots to visually detect the launch of anti-aircraft missiles and to bring the situation closer to combat, from the middle of the 1990-s, Smokie SAM equipment is used in the training process, with a Cube radar signal generator and a pyrotechnic simulator launched by a missile defense system. This stationary equipment operates at a test site in the vicinity of the Nellis air base in Nevada.
Smokie SAM equipment at the site in the vicinity of the Nellis air base
In 2005, in 2005, ESCO Technologies created the AN / VPQ-1 TRTG mobile radar simulator, reproducing the operation of the Cube, Osa and ZSU-23-4 radar systems.
Radar simulator AN / VPQ-1 TRTG
The AN / VPQ-1 TRTG radar equipment deployed on various mobile chassis is usually used in conjunction with GTR-18 Smokey unguided rockets, which visually mimic the launch of the missile defense system, which in turn allows the training environment to be as close as possible to the real one. The most common modification is mounted on the chassis of an all-terrain pickup truck that tows a trailer with simulated rockets. At the moment, AN / VPQ-1 TRTG mobile kits are being actively used in the US military and NATO allies.
Although it is widely believed among ordinary people that MANPADS are extremely effective, it is greatly exaggerated. In real combat operations, the probability of hitting air targets when launching anti-aircraft missiles of portable complexes is relatively small. Nevertheless, the US Department of Defense, due to the high prevalence and high mobility of such complexes, launched a program to create simulators, which allow us to assess the likelihood of destruction of MANPADS when entering the zone of action and to work out an avoidance maneuver.
American marine with MANPADS imitator
The next step was the creation by AEgis Technologies in conjunction with the US Army Aviation and Missile Center (AMRDEC) of the towed remotely controlled MANPADS installation with a reusable MANPAD surrogate missile system equipped with an optoelectronic guidance system.
Scheme of use of the surrogate missile system MANPADS
The main purpose of the MANPADS facility is to train aircraft crews and helicopters to avoid evasion maneuvers and to test the use of countermeasures. Particular attention to the exclusion of hitting the aircraft was paid to realism and the coincidence of speeds and trajectories with real missiles and the possibility of their repeated use. Also, the thermal signature of the training rocket engine should have been close to that actually used in combat. The microprocessor of the rocket is programmed so that it should not, under any circumstances, get into the aircraft. At the end of the active part of the flight of the rocket parachute rescue system is activated. After replacing the solid motor, electric batteries and testing, it can be reused.
Currently, there are more 50 simulators of radar and missile guidance stations, as well as jammers, in American test centers and test sites. These rather complex and expensive systems are used in the course of testing new types of aircraft, avionics and aircraft weapons. In addition, the stations, reproducing the work of enemy detection systems, electronic warfare and anti-aircraft missile systems, can maximize the realism of training to overcome enemy air defense and increase the chances of survival of pilots in a combat situation. It is clear that the leadership of the US military, on the basis of existing experience and despite significant expenses, is trying to prepare the flight personnel to the extent necessary for a possible collision with an enemy with anti-aircraft systems of Soviet and Russian production.
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