“The most serious danger for the Russian state is the corruption of officials”: the Russian people, bureaucracy and the Russian elite in the views of Otto von Bismarck
The German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who is not without reason considered one of the most prominent politicians of the XNUMXth century, is perhaps one of the most quoted German (and indeed European) politicians in Russia. Some of the phrases most often attributed to Bismarck are “never fight the Russians”, “Russians cannot be defeated”, “do not tease the Russian bear”, “start any wars, but never touch the Russians”. Sometimes these phrases, which are actively distributed in Runet, are quoted by modern politicians and even doctors historical Sciences.
In fact, the "Iron Chancellor" never uttered these words. As the German historian Nikolai Vlasov, who wrote several major scientific works on Otto von Bismarck, rightly notes, most of the quotes were attributed to him by unknown Russian myth-makers [2]. Among the fictitious quotes that claim to be true, the main part is devoted to Russia and Russian-German relations.
Among the phrases that are attributed to Bismarck, there are statements that are dedicated to relations between Russia and Ukraine. The most famous saying is usually formulated as "The power of Russia can only be undermined by the separation of Ukraine from it". This fictitious quote (we are talking about the idea attributed to Bismarck by the German philosopher E. Hartmann) appeared back in the 1920s. However, it became especially widespread in the information space during the period of aggravation of Russian-Ukrainian relations [3].
The image of Bismarck in Russia has been politicized, so these apocrypha are often quoted at various patriotic events to prove ideas about the uniqueness of Russia, its people, its historical path and military invincibility. In reality, Otto von Bismarck's attitude towards Russia was much more complex and far from being as positive as alternative historians imagine.
What did Bismarck really think about Russia? How did he treat the Russian people, bureaucracy and the elite? What did he think about the war with Russia? These are the questions we will try to answer in this article.
Formation of Otto von Bismarck's ideas about the Russian Empire
In the popular mind, historical figures, including foreign statesmen and military figures, usually fall into several stereotypical categories.
For example, the category of "mortal enemies", the main goal of which is the destruction of Russia (the most obvious example is Adolf Hitler).
Another category can be called "non-friends". This type includes foreign statesmen and military figures who generally treated Russia negatively, but respected, feared and sometimes even involuntarily admired. Among the major statesmen of the past, two figures appeared in this category in the Russian mass consciousness: Winston Churchill and Otto von Bismarck [2].
In fact, there are very few domestic scientific works devoted to Otto von Bismarck's attitude towards Russia. The most qualitative research can be called the monograph of the historian Nikolai Vlasov already mentioned above “Russia through the eyes of Bismarck” (it will be often cited here), the article by the historian Alexander Medyakov “Our Bismarck”? Russia in the Politics and Views of the “Iron Chancellor” of Germany”, as well as several other small articles authored by the same Nikolai Vlasov. It is also worth noting the book by Vasily Dudarev “The Petersburg mission of Otto von Bismarck. 1859-1862".
As the historian Alexander Medyakov notes, Bismarck paid special attention to Russia throughout his almost half a century of political activity. Both his resignation in 1890 and his political debut were connected with the "Russian" problems - the first big speech in the Prussian Landtag on December 3, 1850 [4]. However, before turning to the consideration of Otto von Bismarck's direct views on Russia, one should answer the question of how they, in fact, were formed.
Vasily Dudarev writes in his monograph that Bismarck was able to form his idea of the Russian Empire while living in 1859–1862. Petersburg, when he had to head the diplomatic mission of the Kingdom of Prussia in Russia [5].
According to another historian, Nikolai Vlasov, such an idea is naive, since until 1959 Bismarck could not know anything about the country to which he was to go [1].
Vlasov notes that Bismarck's idea of Russia (as, in fact, of any person about another country) was formed on the basis of three categories of information.
Firstly, these are stereotypical images that are common in the society where the individual lives - in this case we are talking about Germany. A person absorbs this information in the process of obtaining secondary and higher education, from books, in the course of communication with compatriots.
Secondly, this is information obtained on an individual basis with the help of an "intermediary" - a resident of another country or a compatriot who has spent quite a long time in it.
Thirdly, it is a personal experience gained during a visit to another country [1].
In this regard, as the historian rightly notes, Bismarck arrived in Russia already having certain ideas about her, and looked at her through the prism of already formed views. What did they think about Russia in Germany?
Public opinion in Germany in the 1830s was divided into two camps - conservatives perceived the Romanov Empire as a reliable bulwark in the fight against the revolution, while liberal nationalists treated the Russian Empire very negatively. However, in general, both liberals and conservatives perceived Russia as a strong monolithic militaristic state with an absolutist political system and a semi-feudal economic structure [6].
The absolute power of the monarch, the army of officials obedient to him, the whip that reigns indefinitely in the country - this was the image of Russia in the German discourse of the middle of the 1th century [7]. As historians note, even the authors who sympathized with Russia did not deny the bureaucracy and arbitrariness that reigned in the country. In particular, Leopold von Gerlach, known for his Russophilia, wrote about the instability of power, that the absence of any internal restrictions on the Russian autocracy does not allow the imperial power to rely on Russian society, which opposes all its undertakings [XNUMX].
Characteristic was the image of the Russian Empire as an aggressive power that seeks to conquer Europe. The army, according to the liberals, was the main instrument of the Russian government in the implementation of its traditional aggressive policy. They emphasized the continuity of Russia's aggressive plans since the time of Peter the Great, with the goal of establishing dominance over Europe and Asia [6].
After the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, this image was replaced by another - they began to talk about the Russian Empire as a colossus with feet of clay, entangled in a tangle of its internal problems [1]. All this could not but influence the views of Bismarck, who, in addition to studying historical materials, read modern publications.
Otto von Bismarck received information not only from books, newspapers and small talk, he also received it from intermediaries who were well acquainted with Russian realities. One of these intermediaries was his friend from his student years Alexander Andreevich Kaiserling (Alexander von Kaiserling) [1]. Alexander Kaiserling was a typical representative of the Baltic nobility - culturally they considered themselves Germans, but this did not prevent them from being loyal subjects of the Russian emperor.
Bismarck's personal experience as the Prussian envoy in St. Petersburg in 1859-1862, of course, influenced the outlook of the "Iron Chancellor", but it is worth noting that he came to Russia with already formed views about it. Personal acquaintance with the country allowed him to clarify and expand his ideas, but did not change them dramatically [1].
So, what did Otto von Bismarck think about the Russian people, bureaucracy and the Russian elite?
Bismarck's ideas about the Russian people and the national characteristics of Russians
First of all, it should be noted that the "Iron Chancellor" was definitely a supporter of the Norman theory of the origin of the Russian state. He believed that it was the Varangians who brought statehood to the Eastern Slavs.
"The ability of the Slavs to govern their state without the participation of the Germans was limited since the time of Rurik, it remained the same after the liberation from the power of the Mongols",
Bismarck wrote in 1881 [8]. In his opinion, the Germans played a key role in the development of Russian statehood.
The national characteristics of the Russians, from Bismarck's point of view, were largely due to their belonging to the Slavic race. Speaking about the positive qualities of the Russian people, Bismarck noted their courtesy and courtesy, instinctive mind, elegance, unpretentiousness and loyalty to the rulers. It was the latter features that made the Russians, according to Bismarck, excellent soldiers. To this was added natural collectivism and a willingness to give up personal interests for the sake of a higher goal [1].
At the same time, speaking about the negative features of the Russian people, he noted that Russians are characterized by frivolity when making serious decisions, a tendency to empty dreams and fantasies, narcissism, which makes them overestimate their own capabilities, changeability [8]. In addition, Bismarck spoke of hypocrisy (in particular, in relation to Russian diplomats) and Russian touchiness. Speaking of touchiness, Bismarck noted that it is difficult for Russians to make critical remarks without losing their trust [1].
Having had plenty of conversation with the slowly harnessed cab drivers, who then made up for the time with a frantic ride, and summarizing this experience in a letter to his wife from Moscow in 1859, Bismarck stated: “Harning slowly and driving fast is in the nature of this people” [eleven]. In our country, this catchphrase is often interpreted as positive, however, in the mouth of the Prussian politician, this statement was a purely negative characteristic. From Bismarck's point of view, such a habit leads to the fact that (literally and figuratively) you first have to wait a long time for the horses, and then fast driving leads to a breakdown of the carriage [11].
At the same time, Bismarck spoke and wrote more than once about his sympathy for the "common man" in Russia. By "ordinary people" he meant, first of all, peasants [8]. Remembering Russia, Bismarck noted that there "the people are amiable and of good nature" [4].
“A simple person generally liked me at first sight [1]”,
- so he wrote to his wife, only arriving in St. Petersburg in the spring of 1859. According to Bismarck, the Russian "common man" was distinguished by many positive qualities, and he was loyal to his emperor. In his memoirs, he writes about "the religious devotion of the Russian people to their tsar" [9].
At the same time, according to Bismarck, rough treatment was a necessity in Russia, since ordinary people do not understand another language. The “Iron Chancellor” cited several stories that happened to him in the Russian Empire as an example - once he ordered his coachman to let the loaded wagons through and received only a portion of curses as gratitude. Another story was no less characteristic - Bismarck gave the driver a ruble instead of the prescribed fifty dollars, after which the driver followed him into the house and demanded two rubles. Bismarck had to throw him out [1].
That is, if he generally treated the Russian peasants with sympathy, then his attitude towards the lower classes of the city was different - the moral of the above stories was such that on the streets it is necessary to constantly demonstrate to the townsfolk your high status in order to achieve at least some polite treatment.
If Bismarck treated a simple Russian with some sympathy, then the same cannot be said about officials. But more on that below.
What did Bismarck think about Russian bureaucracy?
Otto von Bismarck had a very low opinion of the Russian state apparatus. The “Iron Chancellor” generally had a negative attitude towards bureaucracy, but he usually cited the example of the Russian bureaucracy when he wanted to scold the Prussian bureaucracy - the situation in Russia looked like a solid dark spot in his eyes. Corruption, incompetence, arbitrariness, lack of any respect for the law and human dignity, lies and fraud at all levels - this is the picture Bismarck paints for us [1].
“The worst disease of the Russian Empire is the army of poorly paid and incapable officials” [1],
Bismarck wrote.
In addition to incompetence, corruption is endemic. Among the officials, according to the "Iron Chancellor", the most corrupt are those who are responsible for army and civilian supplies and construction.
“In my opinion, the most serious danger for the Russian state is the long-term, incurable harm from the corruption of officials and officers; it results in the absence of any justice and force of law, which makes it impossible to raise public welfare and finances” [10],
Bismarck wrote in 1861. According to him, officials who received a salary of 800 rubles spent 40 rubles a year.
The arbitrariness of officials is especially evident in their treatment of ordinary people. Any foreigner who does not have papers proving his immunity with him can be caught on the street and forcibly sent to the army [1].
As for the attitude of Otto von Bismarck towards the Russian army, it, as the historian Nikolai Vlasov notes, was in many ways the same as the attitude towards civil officials. If he found kind words for the soldiers, then his judgments about the officers were harsh.
“Even during the years of the Crimean War, Bismarck wrote about the lack of art and misfortune with which they debut in each new theater of operations; to fix this, the Russian army then has to demonstrate great courage and suffer heavy losses [1]”,
- notes the historian Nikolai Vlasov.
While on vacation in Germany, Bismarck willingly talked about the "shameless venality of Russian officials from top to bottom" and ingenious types of bribes, such as the purchase by a petitioner for a lot of money of an unnecessary and useless painting. Several pages of his memoirs are devoted to describing cases of theft at court [4].
Bismarck's ideas about Russian officials were only part of his ideas about Russian elites and the Russian state as a whole.
Ideas of the "iron chancellor" about the Russian elite
An appeal to the Eastern question was one of the invariable tools of Bismarck's Russian policy, starting from the time of the Crimean War. Immediately upon taking office as Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862, he formulated a kind of foreign policy credo: "The Eastern question is an area in which we can be useful to friends and harm enemies, without being restrained by our own direct interests" [4].
Considering that Bismarck adhered to conservative, monarchist views and was a supporter of the preservation of the power of the traditional elite and an opponent of liberal ideas, the reputation of the Russian Empire as the “gendarme of Europe” and the most reactionary power of the continent was not unambiguously negative for him [1]. He was convinced that the monarchical structure strengthens the state, while the republican one weakens it (which is why he advocated the preservation of the republic in France) [4].
Bismarck's first personal impressions of the Russian court were quite positive. If Bismarck criticized the bureaucracy and the state apparatus a lot, then regarding the Russian aristocracy, he wrote to Schleinitz that “Perhaps the prejudice we have about the Russian aristocracy, which is common among us, is unfair, according to which it is corrupted and deprived of any sense of right and honor” [1].
Nevertheless, already during this period, he notices opposition currents in the highest circles, which cause him anxiety. He wrote to Berlin about the existence of two groups in the ranks of the Russian elite - conservative and "liberal". The second he at that time considered a minority. Gradually, the words “national-Russian” and “Muscovite” were added to the characteristics of this party [10].
The former elite, loyal to the emperor and consisting mainly of Germans, has been replaced by a new one, which is chauvinistic and works to overthrow the autocracy. The transition to the policy of replacing ethnic Germans in leadership positions with national cadres that began under Nicholas I was assessed by Bismarck as a purely negative one, which should not be surprising, given his worldview.
“Three generations were present in Petersburg society during my stay. The most noble of them, the European and classically educated grandees of the era of Alexander I, was already dying out ˂…˃ The generation that looked like Emperor Nicholas or bore his imprint was limited in conversation to court affairs, theater, career and military memories ˂…˃ The third generation, young gentlemen, in society showed for the most part less politeness, bad manners and, as a rule, a stronger aversion to everything German, especially Prussian, than the first two generations "[8],
he wrote in his memoirs.
From Bismarck's point of view, elite opposition increasingly limited the power of the Russian monarch over time. The liberal faction grew stronger. In the early 1860s he wrote that malicious courtiers deceive Alexander II and in this way achieve the adoption of unfavorable and undesirable decisions for the tsar. Nevertheless, Bismarck considered the position of the emperor to be quite strong. However, already in the 1870s. the chancellor said that the Russian monarch only with difficulty resists the pressure of the “national party” [10].
From the turn of the 1870s–1880s. Bismarck began to evaluate the internal situation in Russia even more pessimistically. This was largely due to the assassination of Alexander II. In February 1880, the chancellor wrote about two "related, but not identical" groups - "pan-Slavist, to which Milyutin and the Grand Dukes belong, and revolutionary" [10].
Prince Gorchakov was especially hostile to the German Chancellor. His closest friends noted his “morbid irritability” and especially “how much he cherishes feelings of revenge and revenge for true or imaginary injustice.” Having declared - deservedly or not - someone as his enemy, Bismarck usually did not change his assessment and was able to pursue enemies for many years. After the “military alarm” of 1875, Bismarck complained at every opportunity to Gorchakov, who attributed to him militant intentions and “used my shoulders as a pedestal to appear to Europe as an angel of peace” [4].
It is impossible not to note the following interesting assessment of Bismarck regarding Russia.
When Nicholas II took the throne, the "Iron Chancellor" was already retired. It is curious what question he asked at the end of 1895 to G. Moltke Jr., the German military attache in St. Petersburg. He was not interested in the attitude of Nicholas II to Germany, Bismarck asked if the young emperor knew how to act tough. Hearing that the new monarch was a "man of comfort", Bismarck questioned his ability to keep the people in order. According to him, if sixty million Russians are turned away from their tsar, they will soon begin to create madness [4].
In general, Russia seemed to Bismarck not just one of the great powers, but also an elemental force, and this influenced his attitude towards his eastern neighbor, along with his own political considerations. At the end of the 1880s. he had to resist the sharply increased pressure of the military, who wanted a preventive war with Russia. Like 30 years ago, and even partly in the same terms, Bismarck reminded of the absence of a practical goal and a worthy "prize" for such a struggle [4].
Conclusion
Summing up, it should be noted that the idea of Bismarck as a "Russophile" is not entirely correct. As the historian Alexander Medyakov notes, the opinion about his special Russian predilections arose during the life of the chancellor as a result of a combination of several factors: the policy he pursued towards Russia, the St. Petersburg episode of his biography, knowledge of the Russian language, and, finally, a number of well-known historical anecdotes that emotionally colored Bismarck's attitude to the neighboring empire [4].
Knowledge of the Russian language really sharply distinguished Bismarck from the ranks of foreign diplomats of the 4th century and, of course, testified to his interest in the country in which he ended up [XNUMX]. In fact, Bismarck had a rather high opinion of the Russian language - he was surprised that a people who were lagging behind in many ways had such a beautiful and perfect language. However, in general, the "Iron Chancellor" was quite skeptical about Russia. He was especially skeptical about the state apparatus and bureaucracy.
Paradoxically, contemporaries in Germany accused the "Iron Chancellor" of Russophilia, while in the Russian Empire itself they were treated very coolly, and the press periodically criticized him and tried to make him look unsightly. In the Russian press of the second half of the 12th - early XNUMXth centuries, a contradictory image of the "Iron Chancellor" developed, which has repeatedly changed over several decades. As experts note, the change in assessments probably depended on the Russian-German relations of the period under study, on the value orientations and worldview of the representatives of the Russian press [XNUMX].
Most of the apocrypha attributed to Bismarck appeared at the end of the XNUMXth and beginning of the XNUMXst century. Thus, the phrase attributed to Bismarck "never go to war with Russia" first appears in fiction at the end of the twentieth century. Its continuation (about “unpredictable stupidity”) arose, apparently, much later, already at the beginning of the 1830st century. The phrase “Slavs are invincible and only by internal strife can they be brought to foreign enslavement” is found as early as 3 in F. Bulgarin’s story “Slavs, or the Liberation of Arkona”. The practice of attributing this phrase to Bismarck also appears on the Internet around the middle of the first decade of the XNUMXst century [XNUMX].
In reality, Bismarck, as a politician, could not completely rule out a war with Russia, but he sincerely believed that such a war could only be defensive. He believed that Russia and Germany did not have a serious conflict of interests, since the Germans did not need Russian territory, and the Russians did not need German land.
Historian Nikolai Vlasov rightly notes that
“Throughout his political career, Bismarck really considered it necessary to maintain good relations with Russia. However, this conviction was not dictated by fear or any emotional attachment to Russia, but by purely rational considerations. Bismarck considered good neighborly relations with the eastern neighbor as important, but not vital” [1].
Otto von Bismarck was ready to meet Russia halfway, but exactly as long as it did not contradict the national interests of Prussia and Germany as a whole. The fact that he always considered the activities of the Russian Empire through the prism of the interests of Germany is also evidenced by his correspondence with General Edwin von Manteuffel and General L. von Gerlach:
“When asked whether I am for the Russians or the Western powers, I always answered for the Prussians, and my ideal in foreign policy is freedom from prejudice and independence from sympathies or antipathies towards foreign states and their rulers”[13].
Использованная литература:
[1]. Vlasov N. A. Russia through the eyes of Bismarck. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 2021.
[2]. Vlasov N. A. Bismarck. "Iron Chancellor". - Moscow: Yauza-catalog: Anchor, 2018.
[3]. Vlasov N. A. "Slavs are invincible": fictional quotes from Otto von Bismarck in modern Russia. New and recent history. 2022. No. 3. P. 117–124.
[4]. Medyakov Alexander. "Our Bismarck"? Russia in the Politics and Views of the “Iron Chancellor” of Germany [Text] / A. Medyakov = “Our Bismarck”? Russia in the German "iron chancellor's" policy and views / Alexander Mediakov // Russian History. - 2015. - No. 6. - P. 63–84.
[5]. Dudarev V.S. Petersburg mission of Otto von Bismarck. 1859–1862 Diplomatic exile or political success? - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2013.
[6]. Zaichenko O. V. German journalism and the formation of the image of Russia in the public opinion of Germany in the first half of the 2004th century: dis. for the competition degree cand. ist. Sciences. - Moscow: Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, XNUMX.
[7]. See Zaichenko O. V. The main determinants of the perception of Russia by German conservatives in the 30s and 40s. XIX century: the monarch as the embodiment of the state // Dialogue with time. 2013. Issue. 42, pp. 194–222; Zaichenko O. V. The main determinants of the perception of Russia by German conservatives in the 30–40s. XIX century: the residence of the emperor and the court // Dialogue with time. 2013. Issue. 43. pp. 115–143.
[8]. Vlasov N. A. Otto von Bismarck on the prospects of Russian parliamentarism [Electronic resource] // URL: http://www.navlasov.ru/upload/userfiles/4/218untitled61b838ceeb56f.pdf.
[9]. See Bismarck O. Thoughts and memories: in 3 volumes - M .: Sotsekgiz, 1940–1941 // Volume 1, p. 159.
[10]. Vlasov N. A. The image of Russia in the worldview of Otto von Bismarck // Past Years. Russian historical journal. 2020. No. 58 (4). pp. 2720–2728.
[eleven]. Otto von Bismarck. Personal correspondence from St. Petersburg. 11–1859 / transl. with him., comment. V. S. Dudareva. St. Petersburg: Aletheia. 1862.
[12]. Ipatov A.M. Personality and politics of Otto von Bismarck in the estimates of the conservative press of the Russian Empire // Vestn. Perm. university Ser. Story. 2013. No. 1 (21). pp. 151–159.
[13]. Quote from: Vasily Dudarev. Bismarck and Russia. 1851–1871 - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2021.
Information