Balkan rehearsal for European war
"On the knife" - a painting by Yaroslav Veshin, 1912. Bulgarian infantry attacking Turkish positions
The threat of a big war
The strong pressure of France, which was clearly inclined towards the start of a great European war (How Hot Balkan Boys Started a War Over Turkish Inheritance), did not force Russia to retreat from a cautious policy. Petersburg did not want war with the German bloc.
British diplomacy took an evasive position in the Austro-Serbian conflict. London clearly wanted to retain the role of arbiter between its allies in the Entente and the German bloc. In November 1912, London proposed that an international conference be convened to resolve Balkan issues. Austria-Hungary hesitated to agree, Germany supported its ally. On November 28, the Serbs captured Durazzo on the Adriatic coast. Vienna demanded that Belgrade withdraw troops from Albanian lands. On December 2, Berlin announced that it would support Austria-Hungary if it was attacked.
The Habsburg Empire was openly preparing for war. On December 10, the “hawk” Konrad von Getzendorf was returned to the post of head of the general staff. Another leader of the military party, General Krobatin, was appointed Minister of War. Already on December 14, Getzendorf submitted a note to the emperor, in which he proposed to immediately attack Serbia. The old Kaiser Franz Joseph refused to invade, fearing the consequences.
Vienna refused to invade because of the position of London. Britain made it clear to Germany that it would not remain neutral if it came to a European war involving the French and Germans. Berlin, which had not yet completed its military programs and was not ready for war with Britain, had a corresponding effect on Vienna. The position of Italy, which was increasingly moving away from the Triple Alliance, also played its role.
As a result, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to convene an international conference. Under the influence of Russia, Serbia made concessions: the Serbian government announced that it would obey the decision of the great powers. That is, Serbia refused access to the Adriatic.
Meetings in London
In mid-December 1912, two international conferences began in London. At one, representatives of the warring parties met: Türkiye and the states of the Balkan bloc. On the other, representatives of the six great powers conferred. The British Foreign Secretary, Edward Grey, chaired the conference. Germany and Austria-Hungary supported Turkey's position, trying to curtail the fruits of the victories of the Balkan allies and mainly Serbia. The Entente, and especially Russia, provided support to the Balkan states.
At the first meeting of the ambassadors on December 17, in order to please Austria and Italy, it was decided to create an autonomous Albania (the Albanians themselves proclaimed the creation of their state in Vlora on November 28) under the supreme authority of the Sultan and the patronage of six powers. This decision violated the interests of Serbia, Albania closed the access to the sea for the Serbs. The Great Powers demanded that Serbia withdraw its troops from Albania. In January 1913, Belgrade gave its consent to this.
Thus, the issue of Serbia's access to the sea, which especially angered the Austrians, was resolved. Nevertheless, in December 1912 - January 1913, the Austrian military party still demanded the start of a war with Serbia. True, this time Germany, not wanting to fight immediately with Russia, France and England, was against this idea.
Its diplomatic struggle was between Turkey and its opponents. The winners demanded that the Midia-Rodosto line be the new border of the European part of Turkey. The Turks had to surrender the still resisting fortresses - Adrianople, Ioannina, Scutari, retreat from the islands in the Aegean Sea. Constantinople refused to surrender these positions. On the issue of Adrianople, the positions of Russia and Austria-Hungary coincided, both powers wanted to receive gratitude from Bulgaria. Petersburg informed Turkey that if it did not give in on the Adrianople issue and the war continued, Russia would not guarantee its neutrality. The concentration of the Russian army in the Caucasus began.
England and France did not want Russia's participation in the war with Turkey and, accordingly, Russian successes and territorial seizures. Therefore, Gray and French President Poincaré proposed collective pressure on Turkey. Austria-Hungary supported this project. On January 17, 1913, Turkey was handed a note stating that if the Porte did not agree to conclude peace with the surrender of Adrianople, there would be serious consequences.
Turkish Sultan Mehmed V. Ruled the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars
Coup in Turkey and the resumption of war
The Turkish authorities were inclined to surrender. But on January 23, 1913, a military coup took place in Constantinople. The chauvinists-Young Turks returned to power. Germany supported the new Turkish government: during this period, the Germans were actively developing Turkey economically (the Baghdad railway and other projects). Berlin warned Petersburg against war with Turkey. Encouraged by the Germans, the new Turkish cabinet took a hard line.
On February 3, 1913, hostilities resumed. The Turks tried to go on the offensive near Chataldzha, but were driven back by the Bulgarians. The Bulgarian army launched a counteroffensive. In March, the Turkish fortresses of Adrianople and Ioannina fell, in April, the Montenegrins occupied Scutari. Turkey was defeated again, the Balkan armies could well go to the straits and capture Constantinople. The complete division of the Ottoman Empire was brewing. Türkiye again asked for peace.
The Great Powers were not ready for a complete division of the Turkish inheritance. Helped Turkey and swarms in the camp of the allies. A squabble began between Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece over the division of the booty. Romania got into the dispute, she wanted her piece. Bucharest demanded from Sofia a part of Dobruja for maintaining neutrality.
Russia was afraid of the exit of the Bulgarian troops to the straits and the capture of Constantinople. The Black Sea Fleet began to prepare for a throw to the Bosphorus. France was afraid that the Russians would occupy Constantinople on the sly, and after that they would not want to fight Germany for the French. Paris offered to send a collective fleet of the great powers to the Dardanelles.
Russia put pressure on Sofia so that the Bulgarians abandoned the further offensive. They promised Adrianople and help in bargaining with the Serbs over Macedonia. On April 16, 1913, Bulgaria and Türkiye signed an armistice. On April 20, the Turks concluded a truce with other opponents, except for the Montenegrins.
Retreating turkish soldiers
London Peace Treaty
Peace talks in London resumed. There were enough controversial questions. Greece tried to capture the southern part of Albania. Italy and Austria-Hungary tried to curtail Greek appetites. The British and French actively supported Athens. The Greeks also demanded to give them all the islands in the Aegean Sea, the Turks resisted as best they could. Russia supported many of the claims of the Greeks, but did not want Greece to receive the islands that blockaded the Dardanelles (Imbros, Lemnos, Tenedos and Samothrace). Germany supported its Turkish protégés. Italy had its own position, which did not want to give the Dodecanese islands to the Greeks or Turks.
Meanwhile, a new sharp dispute began over the city of Scutari (Shkoder) in northern Albania, which the Montenegrins continued to besiege. Montenegrin king Nicholas refused to lift the siege. Montenegro was supported by Russia and France. On April 23, the Turks capitulated. Austria categorically insisted that the city come under the control of Albania. The Austrians again threatened war. To reason with the Montenegrins, the great powers decided to send a collective fleet to its shores. One naval blockade did not threaten Montenegro in any way. As a result, Russia again lost to Austria. The question of Scutari was resolved in accordance with the wishes of Vienna.
On May 30, 1913, peace was signed in London. Almost the entire territory of the European part of the Ottoman Empire came under the control of the Balkan states. Turkey in Europe had only Constantinople and a small strip of land along the Enos-Media line. Questions about the structure and borders of Albania, the fate of the Aegean Islands remained unresolved. They were submitted for subsequent consideration by the great powers.
Thus, Turkey lost almost all possessions in Europe, was seriously weakened. She could no longer noticeably tie Russia in the Caucasus, as planned in Germany and Austria. The First Balkan War worsened the position of the Triple Alliance in the Balkans, hence the tantrums of Vienna with threats to start a war. The strengthening of Serbia in the Balkans forced the Austro-Hungarian Empire to divert large forces from Galicia, from the Russian front to the Balkans. Bulgaria was also getting stronger, which forced the Germans to increase diplomatic pressure on Sofia in order to tear it away from Russia and Serbia. None of the founding states of the Balkan Union was fully satisfied with the London Treaty and the result of the war, which became the pretext for a new war.
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