Britannia. Rebellion of Boudica
Boudica urges the Britons to defend their country from Roman invaders. Engraving by William Sharp. National Portrait Gallery, London
“Boudica has become an icon of the British national stories and is now a symbol of not only British freedom, but also the power of women. She was painted and sculpted. She "acted" in films and was the protagonist of numerous books, both academic and artistic.
This is the characterization given to the heroine of this article by a professor at the Australian University of Newcastle, Marguerite Johnson, and we will go further and try to consider in more detail the uprising of Boudica, the “queen” of one of the Celtic Iceni tribes, during the occupation of Britain by the Roman Empire in 60 AD. e.
Queen of the British Iceni tribe. Illustration from The History of England, published 1859.
Many sources that have come down to us agree that Boudica was a woman of noble birth, she was tall and had long reddish-brown hair that fell below the waist. She had a strong and sharp voice that complemented her piercing eyes. But the cruel treatment of her and her two daughters by the Romans who came to the island was the direct cause of the uprising in Britain under the leadership of this powerful woman. But in order to find out what was the immediate cause of the uprising and what Britain was like before the invasion of the Roman legions, let's try to rewind time a few decades ago...
Several decades ago
Having done away with continental Europe, Rome began its slow and gradual conquest of Britain. The first was Julius Caesar, who paid a visit to the island in 55 and 54 BC. e. The military visit was not entirely successful, and Caesar with his legions withdrew back to the continent to deal with more pressing matters.
Emblem of a Roman legionary with the inscription SPQR, the initial letters of the Latin term meaning "Senate and People of Rome"
Nearly a century passed, and already in 43 AD, the Roman Empire under the emperor Claudius under the command of Aulus Plautius launched a successful military invasion of Britain with an army of about 40 people. And if the military campaigns of Caesar in 000 and 55 BC. e. were not entirely successful, this time the Romans achieved rapid military success, Britain became a Roman province, and the Romans consolidated their power on the island for almost three and a half centuries. It was from this moment that the first written records about the history of England began to appear ...
The settlement area of the Celtic tribes before the start of the Roman invasion
The Roman legions pushed deeper and deeper into Britain, conquering the various Celtic tribes one by one. Some tribes, seeking to preserve themselves and their independence, united with Rome as federates (allies), while others offered desperate resistance.
But the strength of the resistance of the local tribes was such that the island was never completely conquered and required a disproportionate military presence from the authorities of Rome throughout the entire time of its existence as a Roman province.
However, military force was not the only tactic used by the empire to hold onto conquered territories. Several Celtic tribal leaders proposed that their "kingdoms" be federated states of Rome. Basically, this meant that while their leaders were alive, they were obliged to pay taxes and unquestioningly carry out all the orders of Rome when they were asked to do so. And by fulfilling all these conditions, they could maintain a certain level of permitted sovereignty in the Roman Empire.
Trying to protect his people from Roman tyranny, Prasutag from the Celtic Iceni tribe* (modern-day Norfolk) was one of eleven British tribal leaders who submitted to the Roman emperor Claudius immediately after the initial Roman conquest of the island in 43 AD. Thus, the Iceni were one of the tribes that made this agreement with Rome, and Prasutag was officially appointed by the Roman authorities as the "king" of the Iceni, a friend and ally of Rome, and remained so until his death (about 60 AD) .
Approximate territory of the Iceni tribe
The long reign of Prasutagus was remembered by his contemporaries as particularly prosperous, and when Prasutagus died he left the then Roman Emperor Nero as his co-heir, along with his two daughters. Although Prasutag hoped this would provide security for his people and his family, this political testament of his set the stage for a massive tribal uprising led by his wife, Boudica.
Boudica
The agreement between the federal people and Rome collapsed immediately after the death of Prasutag. The fact is that, according to Roman laws, it was possible to leave political independence to their federates, and this was normal Roman practice, but on one condition - all the territorial possessions of the leader in the event of his death were bequeathed to the Roman emperor. Roman imperial laws allowed inheritance only through the male line, so all the efforts of Prasutag to transfer the throne to representatives of his kind were in vain.
To transfer the Iceni tribe to the rank of provincial status, and to turn the “kingdom” of Prasutag into a part of the Roman province, was to be Cat Decian, the procurator who exercised financial supervision over this province. Based on existing laws, after his death, the possession of Prasutag was annexed, all the lands were confiscated, and the property was described with Roman thoroughness. In addition, the Romans began to treat the iceni horribly, with Boudica herself and her two daughters - she was publicly scourged, and her daughters were raped.
Moreover, in addition to these outrages and robberies, the centurions arrived at the prices and began to demand the supply of recruits and the payment of a monetary tax.
Here is how Publius Cornelius Tacitus wrote about it*, who is one of the reliable ancient historians describing the life and rebellion of Boudica, in his Annals:
“His kingdom was plundered by centurions, his house by slaves, as if they were spoils of war. First, his wife Boudicaea was scourged (flogged) and his daughters dishonored. All the leaders of the Iceni, as if Rome had received the whole country as a gift, were deprived of their ancestral possessions, and the king's relatives were turned into slaves ... "
Boudica - female warrior
After the Roman massacre of Boudica and her daughters, the Iceni began colluding with neighboring tribes such as the powerful Trinovantes.*, and others, after which Boudica, who had good organizational and oratorical skills, was chosen by the tribal nobility to lead this united uprising.
Such cruel and thoughtless actions of the Roman authorities turned a willing ally of Rome into an irreconcilable enemy and kindled a flame of indignation in the scattered and warring Celtic tribes, which cost the lives of more than a hundred thousand people and almost deprived the Romans of their support in Britain.
Boudica's revenge was well planned and just as ruthlessly executed. She traveled around all the tribes in a chariot with her daughters standing in front of her, after which she managed to create a large alliance of the tribes dissatisfied with Rome, then she waited until all the Roman legions under the command of the praetor and governor of Britain, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, were far away on the coast of Wells, destroying and suppressing the last stronghold of the druid priests on the Isle of Anglesey*. This circumstance favored the revolt of the British tribes, which meant that for some time the rebels would not meet any serious resistance from the Roman troops.
Note. During the Second World War in 1942, during the construction of a military airfield on the Welsh island of Anglesey, builders discovered many artifacts that were donations to the sanctuary of the Druids, which were brought by pilgrims from all over Britain for more than two centuries ...
In his Annals, Tacitus reproduced the speeches of Boudica as follows:
“We British are accustomed to female commanders in war. I come from powerful people! But now I'm not fighting for my kingdom and wealth. I fight like an ordinary person for my lost freedom, my wounded body and my abused daughters.”
At the same time, she clutched a spear when she spoke to her people.
Then, with cold-blooded efficiency, she struck back. With a huge army of rebels, numbering about 120 of their fellow tribesmen, she rampaged throughout eastern Britain, killing the Romans and setting fire to their settlements, heading for the main symbol of Roman occupation - Camulodunum (modern Colchester), once the former capital of the Trinovante tribe.
Trinovante Coin
Destruction of Camulodunum
Finally, the rebels approached the main city of Roman Britain - Camulodunum. The inhabitants of Camulodunum urgently sent messengers to the procurator Catus Decinius, begging the procurator to send reinforcements to help fight off the rampaging mob of rebels. The city was besieged, and the troops sent to the aid of the Roman procurator Catus Decinius, in the amount of two hundred people, from the urgently assembled militias, were easily defeated. The ill-prepared inhabitants of Camulodunum, consisting mainly of retired soldiers and their families, managed to hold out for two days.
Fight in the city (Colchester) of the rebels of Boudica with the defenders of the city, who are trying to protect the temple. Illustration by Peter Dennis
Two days later, the city, which could not withstand the siege of an angry crowd of rebels, fell and was completely looted and demolished. Legate Quintus Petillius Cerialus, commander of the Ninth Legion (the only one left) after the army of Gaius Suetonius Paulinus left for Wales, made an attempt to drive the rebels out of the city, but was defeated and forced to flee to Gaul with the rest of his legion.
Balkern Gate. The XNUMXst century Roman gate at Camulodunum is the largest surviving gate in Roman Britain.
The enraged army of Boudica broke into Camulodunum, methodically destroying everything in its path. They did not even spare the bronze statue of Emperor Nero, which most likely stood in front of the very temple of Claudius, which was defeated and beheaded, and the head itself was taken as a trophy.
City walls of Camulodunum, XNUMXst century. Modern look
The surviving inhabitants of Camulodunum retreated to the Temple of Claudius* (built between 49-60), where for two more days they hid behind its thick walls, listening to the sounds of carnage and destruction of the city outside, when Boudica and her followers plundered and destroyed the city and finally, having reached them, burned this one too temple. After almost two thousand years, now we can only guess about the agony that thousands of unfortunate Roman colonists experienced when the acrid smoke of conflagrations and the scorching fire of Boudica's revenge crept up to them. Modern archaeological excavations have confirmed the widespread destruction of the city, where they found layers of reddish-brown ash, fragments of Roman pottery, which archaeologists soon called the “Boudica layer” ...
It should be noted here that the Roman veterans and other settlers not only mistreated the local Celtic tribes, but also forced them to pay for the construction of the temple of Claudius, the already deceased emperor, during whose reign the Romans conquered Britain. Thus, Camulodunum became the center of particular resentment of the rebels.
In addition, the trinovants suffered greatly from the insulting arrogance of the Roman veteran colonists in their once own capital, Camulodunum, and the occupying Roman colonists looked at the lands of the conquered trinovants as if they were their own lands, inherited by the right of conquest (agri-captivi).
Here is what Tacitus writes about it:
“They threw the Trenovants out of their dwellings, drove them from the fields, called them captives and slaves. The Roman soldiers indulged the willfulness of the veterans both because of the similarity in lifestyle and in the hope that they would be allowed the same.
Boudica's treatment of her enemies was cruel, and she apparently frightened the Romans terribly with her cruel treatment. The historian Cassius Dio reports in detail about the revenge of Boudica for the desecrated honor of her daughters.*:
“Those who were captured by the Britons were subjected to all kinds of reproach. They hung the most noble and eminent women naked, then cut off their breasts and sewed them to their mouths, so that it seemed as if the victims were eating them; after that, they impaled the women on sharp stakes, which pierced them through the entire length of the body. They did all this, accompanied by sacrifices, feasting and debauchery in all their sacred places, but especially in the Andate grove.
Destruction of Londinium
Boudica's next target was the city of Londinium (modern London). Founded on the banks of the River Thames immediately after the Roman conquest in 43 AD. BC, Londinium in a short time became a thriving trading center, which is a settlement of wholesalers and became an important staging post in the network of trade and cultural relations in this new Roman province.
City wall of Londinium
When the rebel forces of Boudica rushed to Londinium, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus completed his victorious campaign on the island of Anglesey and moved towards Londinium, hoping to save the city.
But upon arrival, he realized that it would be impossible to defend the city and, taking with him those who wished to leave the city, he headed north, leaving Londinium at the mercy of the enraged soldiers of Boudica. Here is what Tacitus writes in his Annals:
“Neither the pleas, nor the tears of the townspeople who appealed to him for help, shook his determination, and he gave the signal to start, taking with him on the campaign those who wished to accompany him; those who were deterred from doing so by gender, or advanced age, or the attractiveness of the place, were exterminated by the enemies.”
Breaking into the city, they set fire to all the buildings and massacred the remaining inhabitants there, all those who did not want to evacuate. Archaeological excavations carried out in our time have shown that destruction has even extended to the suburbs of the city on the south bank of the River Thames.
Destruction of Verulamium
After the complete destruction of Londinium, the same fate befell the municipality of Verulamium (Verulamium), located 30 kilometers north of London (modern St. Albans, Hertfordshire) and experienced the wrath of Boudikka's revenge when the rebel army attacked him. In the case of Verulamium, archaeological evidence is limited and the full extent of the destruction is not clear.
Remains of the fortress wall of Verulamium
Note. Verulamium was the tribal capital and chief city of the Catuvellaun tribe.*many of whom were among the rebels.
Remains of the fortress wall of Verulamium
inevitable collision
While Boudica's army was destroying Londinium and Verulamium, Suetonius was gathering troops - the Ninth Legion had previously been defeated by Boudica's troops and was unable to fight. Nevertheless, Suetonius was still able to assemble an army of about 10 thousand people, and several auxiliary units with which it was possible to resist the army of Boudica, which was several times superior to the forces of Suetonius (some sources give a figure of 230 thousand). However, unlike the army Boudiki, the Roman legionaries were well trained, equipped and battle-hardened.
Celtic copper helmet 50–150 AD
The exact location of the battle between the army of Boudica and the Roman legions of Suetonius is unknown. Sources describe the battlefield as being inside a gorge and mention a forest behind the Roman positions. The battlefield is traditionally thought to have been located along a newly built Roman road in the West Midlands known as Watling Street.
Before giving the order to attack, Boudica, with her two daughters in front, rode through the ranks in her chariot and addressed her warriors:
“Look around and see how many of us there are. Take a look at the demonstration of our martial spirit and think about the motives for which we draw our vengeful sword. In this place we must either win or die with glory.”
Battle and death of Boudica
The Roman legionaries, as was customary, were drawn up in the very center in a tight formation in three lines, with lightly armed infantry, consisting of auxiliaries, on either side of them, and on the outermost flanks the cavalry was located. Before the decisive battle, Suetonius addressed his soldiers:
“Keep your ranks, fire your spears, charge at close range, and cut through with your swords. Pursue the vanquished and never think of booty or plunder."
And when the screeching crowd of the rebels tried to attack the enemy, the Roman legions rushed at the army of Boudica in a wedge-shaped column and upset the ranks of the rebels, then the lightly armed infantry from the auxiliary troops did the same, but finally the cavalry, which rushed to the scattered and disorderly crowd with advanced spears - broke through everyone who offered strong resistance. Here is how Tacitus describes it:
“The rebels tried to flee, but the flight proved difficult because the surrounding wagons blocked the path of retreat. The Romans slaughtered everyone they could, even killing the animals that the rebels used to transport their supplies."
Enraged by the destruction of so many cities and the cruel death of so many Roman civilians, the soldiers of Suetonius did not give any mercy to men, women, children, or even animals ...
After the end of the battle, Boudica died, but by what death she died, the sources differ. According to Tacitus, she took poison to avoid being captured and to face inevitable humiliation there, and Cassius Dio claims that she died of an illness (probably from a wound). She was buried by her loyal people in a secret location that some researchers claim is now deep under the tenth platform of King's Cross Station.
Aftermath of the rebellion
The result of the Baudica uprising was that the territory of the Iceni people was devastated, and most of the province completely came under the rule of the military, who were instructed by the Roman emperor Nero to begin repressions against most of the population of Britain, and then, fearing that the repressions undertaken by Suetonius would provoke a new uprising recalled him from his post.
Here is how the British writer David Mattingly describes the aftermath of this rebellion in his work The Imperial Domain: Britain in the Roman Empire:
“The ruler of Britain, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, again set about re-subjugating the previously conquered territories with fire and sword, and this extended not only to the most hostile to Rome peoples who fought under the banner of Boudica,
but even on those who simply remained loyal.”
but even on those who simply remained loyal.”
After this “pacification”, Britain remained part of the Roman Empire until the fifth century (410) AD, when the Roman Empire staggered under the onslaught of the Germanic barbarians.
Although Boudica's rebellion did not last long, the crisis caused by this rebellion prompted Emperor Nero to consider withdrawing Roman troops from the island, but the victory of Suetonius' legions ensured Roman control of the province.
"On a number of occasions I think that the Roman emperors considered abandoning their occupation here, one certainly in the context of the Boudice revolt, when Nero must have wondered if the province was worth the effort to hold on to."
This is how the British writer Simon Elliott, author of the book Roman Conquests: Britain, described the views of the island province.
Driving the Romans off the island may well have been the ultimate goal of the Celts, who, according to some researchers, drew inspiration from the German victory in the Teutoburg Forest.* under the leadership of Arminius Germanus. But Suetonius' victory was enough to secure Roman control of the province. But even after this victory, the Romans had many years of stubborn military campaigns, but they never managed to completely subjugate the island of Britain.
It should be noted here that for the deeply patriarchal Roman society, the fact that a barbarian woman managed to exterminate so many civilized Romans was considered a very strong blow.
“Two cities were sacked, eighty thousand Romans and their allies perished, and the island was lost to Rome. In addition, all this ruin was brought on the Romans by a woman, which in itself caused them the greatest shame.
Cassius Dio wrote in his Roman History.
Note. The Roman procurator Catus Decianus, whose actions provoked the revolt, fled to Gaul, was relieved of his post and replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Surprisingly, there is no record of what became of Boudica's two daughters. And the further fate of the suspended Gaius Suetonius Paulinus is unknown...
Boudica's legacy today
After all the victories won over the Romans, Boudica's rebellion ultimately failed. And although the memory of Boudica faded over time, nevertheless, thanks to the chronicles of Tacitus and Dion that have come down to us, it was rediscovered in the Renaissance, led to the restoration of the legendary glory of Boudica already in the era of Queen Victoria and has never been completely forgotten even to this day. . And in today's Britain, the Iceni "queen" has become something of a modern-day heroine, one of the most iconic women in all of world history and one of the most enigmatic figures of Roman rule in these lands.
Monument to Boudica, unveiled in 1902
Today in the UK there are permanent exhibitions of Boudica in some of England's most important museums such as the British Museum, Colchester Castle Museum and the Verulamium Museum. For hikers and hikers, there is even a 36-mile (58-kilometer) hiking trail called the Boudica Way that winds its way through the picturesque Norfolk countryside.
Tourist route "Way of Boudica". Passes between the city of Norwich and Diss, roughly parallel to the old Roman road
In 1902, immediately after the death of Queen Victoria, a monument to Baudica was unveiled near Westminster Bridge in London, where she, standing on her war chariot drawn by two horses, and with her two daughters, with a spear clutched in her hand, is ready to fight with all the might of Rome. ...
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*And prices. One of the tribes of the Celtic group that lived in ancient Britain and inhabited one of the southeastern regions of the island (modern Norfolk and Suffolk). The Iceni at the time of the Roman invasion were a wealthy people, as evidenced by the found hoards of precious metals, such as a hoard of gold coins (Air Force report in 2011).
*Publius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55 - c. 120). Ancient Roman senator and historian, one of the most famous writers of Antiquity, author of two major historical works - "History" and "Annals". The Annals (Ab excessu divi Augusti) describe events from the death of Octavian Augustus to the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (from 14 AD to 68 AD).
*Trinovants. One of the tribes of the Celtic group in pre-Roman Britain, inhabiting the territory on the north side of the Thames (modern Essex), including the lands now located in Greater London. The Trinovantes were considered the most powerful tribe in Britain. In 60, they joined the anti-Roman uprising of Boudica, after the suppression of which the Trinovantes no longer appear in history. Before the arrival of the Romans on the island, they minted their own coin.
*Anglesey. The island, with an area of 714 sq. km, located in North Wales and separated from the rest of Wales by a shallow and narrow strait. Before the Roman invasion of Britain, this island was considered sacred to the Druid priests.
*Temple of Claudius (lat. Templum Divi Claudii). The main building of the temple was built between 49 and 60 years, it was the largest temple in Roman Britain. The temple was one of the main public buildings in the city, and its façade and grounds were added and expanded over time. Today this temple forms the basis of the Norman castle in Colchester.
* Cassius Dio (between 155 and 164–230). Roman consul and historian, author of the "Roman History" that has come down to us in 80 books, covering the history from the arrival of the hero of the Trojan War Aeneas in Italy until the time of the last Roman emperor from the Severan dynasty - Alexander Severus (r. 222-235).
*Catuvellauns. One of the Celtic tribes in Britain belonging to the group of peoples of the Belgians. They lived north of the Thames in what is now Essex and Middlesex. Before the Roman invasion, the Catuvellaunians were engaged in agriculture, had a prosperous economy and minted their own coinage. After the proclamation of Verulamium as a municipality, many Catuvellaunians received Roman citizenship and began to quickly Romanize.
*King's Cross Station. Railway station in central London. Built in 1852 on the site of a monument to the English monarch George IV. According to legend, this station was built on the site of the last battle of the legendary Celtic leader Boudica, and her body was buried under one of the station platforms. A few minutes from the station is the British Library. Literally, the name of this station is translated as "crossroads of kings."
* German victory in the Teutoburg Forest. The battle that took place in September 9 between the Germanic tribes and the Roman legions. The leader of the Germanic tribe, Arminius, lured the Roman legions into the forest by cunning and defeated them with a sudden blow. All three Roman legions perished, including the commander Quintilius Varus.
References:
1. Publius Cornelius Tacitus. "Annals". Book XIV [Events 59-62 years. n. e.].
2. N. S. Shirokova. "British resistance in the war with Rome after the campaign of Claudius".
3. A. V. Rechkin. "The Queen of the Iron Age against Rome".
4. Richard Hingley, Christina Unwin. Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen.
5. Simon Elliot. Roman Conquests: Britannia.
6. David Mattingly. An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire.
7. Freire Sheppard. Britannia: a history of Roman Britain.
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