Russia's foreign policy in the 1802-1805 years. Creation of III anti-French coalition
The first treaties of Russia with England and France under Alexander I temporarily stabilized the situation in Europe. At this time, relations with the countries of Central Europe — Northern Italy, Switzerland, Austria, the small principalities of Germany, and Prussia — come to the forefront of St. Petersburg. Russia tried to increase its influence on them, while Britain and France were busy with each other. In addition, it is necessary to note the factor that Austria and Prussia were already traditional partners of Russia, and the security of the western borders of the empire depended on their relations with them.
The situation in Germany at that time was quite complicated. There were three main "local" forces: Austria - its head Franz II Habsburg (1768 - 1835), was at the same time the king of Germany (the Roman king) and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation; Prussia and other German states. Austria and Prussia, possessing approximately equal forces, fought for leadership in Germany, intending to unite it under their command. The current situation in Germany was fixed by the Teshensky Treaty of the Year. It was concluded at the end of the War for the Bavarian Succession (started in 1779 year), which went between Austria and Prussia, Saxony. Mediators in the conclusion of peace and the guarantors of compliance with the terms of the treaty were Russia and France. This gave reason for Russia to intervene in German affairs.
As noted in the article "The road to hell is laid out with good wishes": Alexander I and Russian foreign policyRussia at that time tried to maintain peace and stability in Europe. One of the directions of this activity was to maintain the balance of power between Prussia and Austria, while preserving Germany from the penetration of French influence.
Petersburg began to look at Germany as a barrier protecting Russia from the expansionist aspirations of France. Especially acute was the question of saving Austria, Russia was going to prevent its destruction, collapse, save Vienna, as a real political force in Europe. As a result, the entire era of the Napoleonic wars, Russia had to solve the problem of protecting Austria. The same policy then began to be pursued in relation to Prussia, protecting it from the aggression of Paris. Although, as it became clear later, this was a strategic mistake - Austria will not appreciate the titanic efforts of Russia and will nest more than one “pig” for it. It is possible that the division of Austria and the separation of Slavic states from it was a more correct strategy of the Russian Empire. I would not have to shed the blood of thousands of Russian soldiers, far from the Russian frontiers.
Before the signing of the Tilzit Treaty of 1807, several stages of Russian foreign policy can be distinguished. At first Petersburg tried to unite the German states on the basis of the principles of legitimacy and stability in international relations. Then he tried to make a military alliance with Prussia, when they failed, they began to search for an alliance with Austria. After the defeat of Austria in 1805, Russia returned to the idea of an alliance with Prussia - the Tilsit Treaty of 1807 of the year became the logical outcome of this activity.
France during this period tried to defeat Austria and deprive of its possessions in Italy and Germany in its own favor, and in the interests of its allies, for example, Bavaria. In the future, Napoleon planned to destroy the already dilapidated building of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, to undermine the position of Austria in Germany. He did not need a strong Austria, because Napoleon Bonaparte himself planned to lead the process of European integration led by France. The French genius skillfully used the policy of "divide and rule": pushing Austria and Prussia together (supporting the Prussians), taking into account the separatist interests of the smaller German rulers.
King of Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm III (reigned from November 1797 of the year to June 1840 of the year) sought leadership in Germany, but this was opposed by Austria and the imperial tradition. Therefore, Berlin in the fight against the Habsburgs began to focus on Paris. Although the priority was clearly not chosen, Berlin was going to “sit on two chairs”, tacking between Russia and France. Moreover, in Berlin they did not intend to solve the question of unifying Germany radically; they tried to solve the political problem gradually, through treaties, exchanges, intrigues and other political and diplomatic tricks.
Vienna was going to preserve its territory, influence, positions of the Catholic Church. Aggressive designs were against Northern Italy and Bavaria. The main enemy in Europe, the Hapsburgs considered Napoleonic France. But Vienna couldn’t stand alone against the French threat, so she was looking for strong allies. An important role was played by the factor of Franz II’s personal hatred for revolutionary France and Napoleon. The Austrian ruler was not capable of flexible politics, making one mistake after another, experiencing defeats one by one against France, only the position of Russia retained Austria, as a great power in Europe.
Towards a new war with France
9 February The 1801 year in the French city of Luneville signed a peace treaty between Austria and Prussia. He put an end to the second anti-French coalition - only England continued the war. In the 1800-1801 war. against France, the Austrian troops suffered a complete defeat on the Italian and German fronts. Vienna was ousted from the left bank of the Rhine, and the Dutch possessions of Austria (Belgium) and Luxembourg also finally withdrew from France. Vienna also recognized two new republics dependent on Paris - the Batavian (Netherlands) and Helvetic (Switzerland) and two previously existing ones - the Ligurian (Genoa) and Tsizalpinsk (Lombardy) republics.
The Luneville Treaty was associated with the problem of rewarding the German imperial princes for the transition of the left bank of the Rhine to France. There were not only Austrian possessions, but also those princes who did not fight with France. There was a question about compensation. Almost all European states, including Russia, were drawn into the dispute over the nature and amount of compensation. Alexander I wanted the question to remain intra-German and be resolved between Austria and Prussia or on the imperial Diet (the Reichstag, he was the highest estate-representative body of the Holy Roman Empire and met in Regensburg). These negotiations revealed the utopian ideas of St. Petersburg on the creation of a single union of German states friendly to the Russian Empire. The contradictions between Austria and Prussia were insoluble.
Paris, acting on Berlin and the German elector most independent of Austria, thwarted Russia's attempts to keep the problem at the German level. France assumed the role of judge and mediator. In September, 1802 was signed by the allied Franco-Prussian-Bavarian treaty, which was directed against Austria and guaranteed Bavaria independence. Russia was not even warned about its conclusion.
In the winter of 1802-1803, it became finally clear that France violates the terms of the Russian-French secret convention 1801 of the year, the Luneville and Amiens (peace of March 1802 between France and its allies with England) treaties. Napoleon, either directly or indirectly, annexed Parma to France, Piacenza, Elba Island, created the vassal kingdom of Etruria, the Italian Republic. French forces entered Switzerland, French envoys stepped up their activities in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, and preparations began to implement the landing operation against Britain.
England and France were ready for a new war. The reason was the Maltese question - 8 March 1803, Napoleon demanded the withdrawal of British troops from the island. And British King George III (ruled England from 1760 of the year to 1820 of the year) said that the French were threatening the security of the kingdom, preparing for an assault, conducting aggressive actions in Italy and Switzerland. In fact, it was a declaration of war, but it began in May 1803.
During this period, Vienna and London tried to persuade Russia to their side, but Petersburg wisely refused. Russia again launched a peace initiative, offering to give Malta under Russian patronage, while Paris was demanded to guarantee the inviolability of Italy, Germany and the Ottoman Empire. It is clear that neither London nor Paris agreed. They were not interested in strengthening the position of the Russian empire either in the Mediterranean or in Germany. Both Berlin and Vienna were annoyed, each power believed that Russia would support their demands. As a result, the rejection of a strategic alliance with one of the powers (and the most beneficial was an alliance with France - there were no common borders, England was the old common enemy), Russia faced the threat of isolation.
At this time, France occupied Hanover - the patrimonial possession of the kings of England from the Hanover dynasty. This caused a distortion of forces in favor of France: this territory allowed the French to exert direct pressure on Denmark and Prussia, to increase their influence on the German principalities, to go to the Baltic region, to threaten the trade communications of Northern Europe, including trade in Russia and England (Britain was then trading partner of Russia).
Union project with Prussia
The capture of Hanover was a threat to the entire traditional system of political and economic ties between Russia and the Baltic region, Northern Germany and England. In St. Petersburg, draw up a draft defensive alliance with Prussia.
In late May - early June 1803, the Russian Foreign Ministry is putting forward a draft Russian-Prussian defensive convention against France, in order to protect Northern Germany. Already in the summer of 1803, Petersburg was ready to oppose France if Berlin went to this union. Russia even put forward two projects, the first spoke only of a military alliance, and the second was aimed at strengthening the position of Prussia in Germany and in the long term guaranteed the unification of the German lands led by Berlin. In St. Petersburg, it was considered that the idea of national unity and freedom would inspire the Germans to fight the expansion of France.
Berlin was in no hurry to respond positively to these tempting offers. At that time, when negotiations with Russia were under way, the envoy of Friedrich, the authorized secretary of the royal cabinet, I. Lombard, held talks in Brussels with French Foreign Minister Sh. Talleyrand. The Frenchman played on the contradictions of Austria and Prussia, promised not to encroach on North Germany, not to increase the French forces in Hanover, giving free hand to Berlin in the region. From Prussia they demanded only guarantees of neutrality of the German states and not to let foreign (ie, Russian) troops pass through their territory.
In Russia, they learned about the negotiations of Talleyrand and Lombard in November 1803, plans for an alliance with Prussia were buried.
The course of an alliance with Austria and the formation of the III anti-French coalition
Petersburg finally sets a course for the preparation of a war with France, begins the sounding of Austria’s interests. In Vienna, they were cautiously looking at the negotiations between Russia and Prussia, fearing that in the end a union of France, Prussia and Russia, directed against Austria, would be created. Therefore, the proposal for an alliance was received positively. But they clarified that they did not intend to fight because of the conflict in Northern Germany, replacing the French influence with the Prussian one.
At this time, the attention of St. Petersburg was shifted to the Mediterranean, North Germany did not become a war zone. Although France was still preparing the landing operation against Britain, but the main actions took place in southern Europe. Petersburg began to fear the appearance of French troops in the Balkan Peninsula, since they would have been well received there, Turkey’s oppression was very heavy. Austria was disturbed by the activity of the French in Italy.
Negotiations between Vienna and St. Petersburg, which began in November 1803, were delayed, because the Austrians waited. But the formation of the anti-French coalition was accelerated by a series of provocative events: in the winter of 1804, the French monarchists, who were based in England, organized an attempt on the life of Napoleon. The anger of Napoleon fell on the Duke of Enghien, appeared the opinion that he was connected with the conspiracy, was ordered to seize it. The French dragoons crossed the Rhine and captured the duke. Then it became clear that he was not a member of the conspiracy, but his 21 March 1804 was shot as a participant in the past in the royalist intervention.
This event caused a huge resonance throughout Europe - the French prince of blood, the son of the last Prince of Conde, one of the youngest branches of the French royal house of the Bourbons, was killed; the neutrality of the Duchy of Baden, where the duke lived, and of the whole German empire, which included Baden, was violated. I remembered the horrors of the French Revolution.
In addition, 18 May 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor. It was another challenge to European monarchs - Napoleon not only shed royal blood, but also declared himself a monarch. War has become inevitable.
Austria. The coronation of Napoleon and the execution of the Duke of Enghien, once again showed Vienna that Paris would not take into account the independence of the German principalities and the imperial rights of Austria. Were taken into account and the statements of Napoleon that the borders of France should be held at the borders of the state of Charlemagne. Caused a sharp irritation and the actions of Paris in Italy, the proclamation of Napoleon as the Italian king. But the Austrian government did not immediately agree to an alliance with Russia and Britain, trying to bargain for additional guarantees - to take land from France in favor of Austria, to strengthen its position in Germany and not to let Prussia strengthen. This position has delayed the formation of the union. In addition, Vienna managed to spoil relations with the majority of German principalities, trying to solve controversial issues from a position of strength, feudal law - the emperor was a suzerain of the German Elector. As a result, a single anti-French German front could not be created. Talleyrand also played well on the contradictions of Austria with the German principalities, which were finally drawn into the orbit of French politics. So, when the war began, Bavaria, Württemberg and Darmstadt came out on the side of France.
Petersburg at the end of 1804 and the beginning of 1805, to push Vienna in the right direction, began to threaten to form an alliance with Prussia, fears are being expressed that England will make peace with France. At the same time, Vienna promises to help the Russian auxiliary corps, and to neutralize Prussia, sending troops to its border.
At the same time, Russia tried to attract Prussia to the anti-French coalition. But Berlin continued the policy of “sitting on two chairs” - negotiating in a friendly tone with both Russia and France. The Prussian government, after long hesitations, announced that it would be able to speak only when France invaded Northern Germany and categorically refused to fight if the French army entered Austria, Italy or the Ottoman Empire. Thus, Prussia, like Austria, placed only its own interests at the forefront. The idea of Petersburg to create a common front against the aggressor was alien to Vienna and Berlin. At the same time, Berlin was negotiating with the French, and it was going to create a Franco-Prussian alliance. Paris was ready to yield to Prussia Hanover, in exchange for benevolent neutrality, recognition of the French conquests and refusal to miss Russian troops. Russia could not overcome the contradictions between Austria and Prussia.
Anglo-Russian Union. In the spring of 1805, Nikolai Novosiltsev was sent to London. The terms of the contract were developed fairly quickly. The British very clearly ensured that in Europe not a single power extended its influence, but showed particular interest in Russia. Napoleon challenged London, so the British supported countries hostile to the French.
11 April 1805 of the year was concluded the alliance of Russia with Great Britain. More 2 January Russia signed a treaty of alliance with Sweden. 29 July 1805, Austria, with a special declaration, announced its accession to the Russian-British agreement. III anti-French coalition finally took shape. The Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of both Sicilies also joined this union. Prussia remained neutral.
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