Nuclear fears, imaginary and real. Part 1
Reading on the "Military Review" comments on military technology, stories wars and armed conflicts, international relations and especially the issue of nuclear deterrence, never ceases to be surprised how polar the views and opinions differ among different groups of site visitors. After analyzing various statements, we can distinguish two large groups with diametrically opposed views. One bright group, let's call it “We all break,” distinguished by extreme militancy and “hurray-patriotism” - bordering on chauvinism - calls for an extremely tough policy towards the US and its allies. According to the adherents of “We will all break,” we are “stronger than ever,” and our country has enough power to stand alone against all enemies and potential rivals who can become enemies over time. In the comments of representatives of this group, one can often read that “if a fight is inevitable, then it is necessary to beat first” and, regardless of their own losses, to use all available types of weapons, including nuclear (thermonuclear). However, such judgments, as a rule, are expressed by people who are not burdened with life experience, special knowledge and family, who did not serve in the armed forces, and, as they say, did not experience “deprivation and hardship”. However, there are exceptions, the author of these lines not so long ago had a chance to communicate with the man who exchanged the fifth dozen, who professed similar views. This “young” man, who works as a head of the lower level in one of the state structures, having taken on the chest a certain amount of alcohol, literally shocked me with similar reasoning. During the conversation, the impression was that the reason for such statements was unsatisfied ambitions and lack of personal privacy.
Another extreme group is “All Kick-Ass” (in case of a nuclear war). This group sincerely believes that any use of nuclear weapons will end in a universal apocalypse, and therefore this means of warfare must be immediately eliminated. At the same time, supporters of this point of view operate with terms such as “nuclear winter”, “universal radiation contamination”, “death of all living things”. Such opinions are most often demonstrated by mature people, whose formation as a personality occurred back in the USSR, they raise children or already have grandchildren, but, as a rule, are not very well educated. I must say that this point of view is much closer to me, I myself am the father of three children and, naturally, I wanted their childhood to be peaceful.
But a number of myths and horror stories fueled by the media are associated with nuclear weapons, which, let's say, do not quite correspond to reality, which we will try to understand today. To better understand the features of nuclear weapons and their role in the history of mankind, it is worth starting with the prerequisites of creation and the very moment of their appearance.
In 1939, German scientists Otto Gan and Fritz Strassmann discovered the process of fissioning uranium nuclei when irradiated with neutrons. This discovery, in fact, served as the starting point for the work on the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power reactors. In the process of nuclear fission of an uranium atom, two (less often three) nuclei with similar masses are formed - the so-called fission fragments. As a result of fission, other reaction products are also formed: light nuclei (mainly alpha particles), neutrons, and gamma rays. The division is spontaneous and forced (as a result of the effects of other particles, primarily neutrons). The disintegration of heavy nuclei serves as an energy source in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Under certain conditions, the fission reaction can be a chain - this means that during the reaction the amount of released energy is greater than that absorbed, and other nuclei enter the fission reaction. The division of the nucleus of a heavy element under the action of a neutron into two rapidly flying fragments is accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy, the emission of gamma radiation and neutrons — on average, the 2,46 neutron into one decaying uranium nucleus and 3,0 — into one plutonium. As a result of the uncontrolled decay of nuclei, the number of neutrons increases dramatically, and the fission reaction can instantly cover all nuclear fuel. This happens when a “critical mass” is reached, when the fission chain reaction starts, leading to an atomic explosion.
The use of a nuclear fission chain reaction made it possible to create nuclear reactors that use controlled chain reaction, and nuclear weapons (atomic bombs) that use an unmanaged chain reaction. At the time of its creation, in 1945, the atomic bomb became the most destructive type of weapon that existed at that time, having surpassed the most powerful chemical explosive in terms of energy release.
Initially, while the number of atomic bombs was small in both mass and dimensions, they were comparable to the heaviest high-explosive bombs, nuclear weapons were considered in the United States as a “superweapon” for destroying particularly important targets and an instrument of “nuclear blackmail” of the Soviet Union. At first, the delivery vehicles for the atomic bombs were exceptionally heavy bombers. However, as the number of nuclear charges grew and their miniaturization first in the USA and then in the USSR, nuclear weapons began to be seen as weapons of the battlefield, suitable for solving tactical missions. The Land Forces received tactical and operational tactical mobile missile systems and "nuclear artillery", and for the front-line aviation relatively compact nuclear bombs were created.
Since the mid-50s, anti-aircraft missiles and air combat missiles of interceptor fighters were equipped with nuclear warheads; the fleet received nuclear naval mines, depth charges and torpedoes. To create impassable zones of destruction on the path of the enemy’s advance, nuclear mines were intended, and compact nuclear mines in the form of satchels were created for parts of “special operations”. The apogee of "nuclear senility" was achieved in the USA after the creation of 120-mm and 155-mm nuclear recoilless guns "Devi Crocket" with a firing range of 2-4 km. Bezkatki "Devi Crocket" in the early 60s entered service with the American infantry divisions in Europe. With their help, it was supposed to repel the attacks of the Soviet tanks. In the Soviet Union in the late 60s and first half of the 70s, work was underway to create a tactical missile system for the Taran tank regiments with a large-caliber radio-controlled ATGM equipped with a nuclear warhead with a projected launch range of 6-8 km.
The greatest concentration of tactical nuclear weapons was in Western Europe. The saturation of the American armed forces with nuclear warheads continued until the mid-60-x. After that, the number of US tactical charges began to decline. This was due to the decommissioning of obsolete OTRs and the abandonment of numerous Nike-Hercules and Bomark air defense systems with nuclear warheads that were on combat duty in the United States and Canada. These costly anti-aircraft systems turned out to be practically useless after the ICBMs began to form the basis of the USSR’s SNF. In the Soviet Union, on the contrary, after achieving parity with the United States on strategic carriers in the 70-s, until the end of the 80-s, the number of nuclear warheads was increasing.
While the process of miniaturization of nuclear weapons was observed for tactical nuclear weapons, and at the same time as the firing accuracy increased, power decreased, which should have reduced the side effect for their troops, on the contrary, before the start of 70-x, warheads were increasing. The appearance of thermonuclear weapons in 50-s, the destructive force of which is based on using the energy of the reaction of nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones (for example, synthesis of one helium atom nucleus from two nuclei of deuterium atoms), allowed us to create combat units for MRBM, ICBM and aerial bombs megaton class. The hydrogen bomb has the same damaging factors as the atomic one, but a thermonuclear charge can have a much larger possible explosion power (theoretically, it is limited only by the amount of "thermonuclear fuel" available). However, in practice, the power growth had its limit, first of all it was due to limitations on the mass and dimensions of the warhead, as well as the fact that in order to increase the damage radius by two times it is necessary to increase the energy release by eight times, which, of course, is not too rational .
The desire to increase the power of strategic nuclear charges was largely due to the low accuracy of the first ballistic missiles, suitable for the destruction of only large area targets. As the guidance systems, reliability, and miniaturization of warheads improved, the ICBM and SLBM began to be equipped with several warheads with individual guidance (up to 10). From a military point of view, it is more advantageous to place on one rocket several compact warheads with individual homing power 100-500 кт, than one warhead with a capacity of tens of megatons.
Recalling the course "Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection", I would like to remind readers of the main damaging factors of a nuclear (thermonuclear explosion). In a ground (low-altitude air) nuclear explosion, a shock wave (about 50%) causes the greatest damage, the next most dangerous hazard is light emission (30 — 40%), approximately 10-15% of the total number affected can be from radioactive contamination ( including from induced radiation) and 5% falls on penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse (EMP).
An atmospheric nuclear explosion results in an almost instantaneous increase in temperature, pressure, and air density, which begins to expand at supersonic speeds. The front of the shock wave is capable of destroying buildings, structures and hit untouched people. In the immediate vicinity of the epicenter of a ground or very low air blast, powerful vibrations arise that can destroy or damage underground shelters and structures. The energy of the shock wave is distributed over the entire distance traveled, because of this, the force of the impact of the shock wave decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance from the epicenter. Protection from shock waves serve as shelters and various types of shelter. In an open area, the action of the shock wave is reduced by the folds of the terrain, obstacles and indentations.
The source of light radiation during a nuclear explosion is the luminous region of the explosion - heated to high temperatures and evaporated parts of the warhead and the environment. The maximum temperature on the surface of the luminous sphere can reach 8000 ° C. The duration of the glow after the explosion lasts from fractions of a second to several seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Contrary to the common misconception among ordinary people, it is the expanding “fireball” that arose in the first moments after the explosion, and not the “mushroom” that was formed later, which causes the greatest destruction. With a low-altitude explosion, as a result of which the maximum destructive effect is achieved on the surrounding terrain, the “fire sphere”, as a rule, is thrown upwards by the shock wave reflected from the ground. It is possible to hide from light radiation beyond any opaque barrier, preferably from non-combustible material. Exposure to light radiation is significantly reduced during precipitation, fog, or high air dustiness.
As a result of a nuclear (thermonuclear) reaction, the formation of hard ionizing radiation (gamma radiation and neutron flux) occurs. Due to the fact that penetrating radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, the range of damage caused by ionizing radiation during atmospheric explosions is significantly smaller than the area affected by light radiation and a shock wave. Even with the use of high-power charges, penetrating radiation affects people only at a distance of 1-3 km from the explosion site. However, special types of nuclear charges with an increased yield of penetrating radiation, specifically designed for the destruction of manpower. At high altitudes, where the atmosphere is highly rarefied, and in space, penetrating radiation and an electromagnetic pulse are the main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. In addition to the ability to cause radiation damage to manpower, penetrating radiation can create irreversible changes in materials, disabling electronic and optical devices due to disruption of the crystal lattice of the substance and other physico-chemical processes under the influence of ionizing radiation. It is worth mentioning the variety of thermonuclear weapons, whose penetrating radiation is the main damaging factor - this is the so-called “neutron bomb”. As a result of the explosion of such a charge, up to 80% of the energy is converted into a flux of fast neutrons, and only 20% falls to the other damaging factors. When passing through various materials, fast neutrons lead to the formation of induced radiation. On the ground, induced radioactivity may be hazardous to human health from several hours to several days. As a rule, these are tactical charges of relatively low power or, on the contrary, warheads of the anti-missile of the megaton class. In the first case, tactical neutron charges are supposed to be used against enemy armored vehicles, since armor badly delays fast neutrons. In space, the mileage of neutrons is practically unlimited, and at a distance of several kilometers from the explosion of the anti-rocket warhead, the hard neutron radiation can neutralize the nuclear materials contained in the ICBM warhead and disable its electronic filling.
As a result of a significant amount of radioactive substances falling out of a cloud lifted into the air, a radioactive contamination of the area occurs. Radionuclides, which form radioactive fallout, result from the fission of “nuclear fuel”, are formed under the action of hard neutron radiation on the ground, and the smallest part is the unreacted part of the nuclear charge. Radioactive isotopes gradually settle to the terrain from a wind-blown cloud of a nuclear or thermonuclear explosion. Depending on the degree of radiation contamination, being on the ground where the fallout has occurred may be a different hazard.
It is believed that the degree of radiation pollution of the environment is directly proportional to the force of the explosion, but it is not. The number of radioactive isotopes and their lifespan primarily depends on the design of the bomb, the materials used in it and the type of explosion. Theoretically justified is the possibility of creating a low-power, but very dirty nuclear charge of a special design, capable of dubbing a territory ten times more than with a “normal” nuclear explosion. Also, with an air and ground explosion of the same nuclear weapon, the degree of radiation contamination of an area will differ several times. At atmospheric tests it was repeatedly demonstrated - the further the explosion from the surface of the earth - the less radiation contamination of the area. As striking examples are the two most powerful tests of the American and Soviet thermonuclear charges.
1 March 1954 of the Year at Bikini Atoll held a test of the fusion charge "Castle Bravo" with 15 power MT. It was an experimental stationary device weighing about 10 tons, in which lithium-6 lithium deuteride was used as a "thermonuclear fuel." The explosion produced a huge amount of radionuclides, the atoll itself and its environs were subjected to radioactive contamination. The zone of the strongest radiation contamination was in the form of an oval 100 km wide and more than 550 km long. It was necessary to carry out an emergency evacuation of American military personnel and civilians from nearby islands, some of them still received very high doses of radiation. Significant doses, up to lethal, were received by crews of fishing vessels fishing in the area. “Castle Bravo” was not only the most powerful, but also the “dirtiest” American test explosion. The cause of the large emission of radiation was the fission reaction of the uranium shell, which surrounded the thermonuclear charge, it worked as the third stage of the explosion. The use of uranium-238 elements in a thermonuclear charge, which is divided under the action of fast neutrons and forms radioactive fragments, makes it possible to increase the overall power of the explosion several times, but also significantly (by 5 — 10 times) increases the amount of radioactive fallout.
Another example is the 30 test of October 1961, when the AN602 thermonuclear bomb test (RDS-202), also known as the Tsar Bomb or Kuzkina Mother, was carried out at the test site of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. A bomb weighing more than 26000 kg and a length of 8000 mm was dropped from a specially upgraded Tu-95В bomber, on which the hatch of the bomb hatch was dismantled. Otherwise, the bomb was simply impossible to hang under the plane. The power of the explosion in TNT was 58 MT. Initially, the design capacity of the bomb was 100 MT, but for security reasons it was reduced. The hydrogen bomb dropped from a height of 10500 meters exploded on command of a barometric sensor at a height of about 4000 meters. At the same time, a fire sphere was formed with a diameter of more than 4000 meters. The powerful reflected shock wave prevented her from touching the surface of the earth, throwing the fiery sphere of the explosion from the ground.
Despite the fact that, compared with “Castl Bravo”, the power of the Soviet test explosion was almost four times larger, the explosion of “Kuz'kina Mother” on Novaya Zemlya was relatively “clean”, and the number of generated radioactive substances was several times smaller. At the same time, the bulk of the products of the air explosion rose to a great height, where it disintegrated, never reaching the surface of the earth. A few hours later, in a helicopter, the test participants arrived at the point over which the explosion occurred. The level of radiation on the ground was not very dangerous. In this case, the design features of the Soviet thermonuclear bomb, as well as the fact that the explosion occurred at a sufficiently large distance from the earth's surface, affected.
During a nuclear explosion, the strongest alternating electromagnetic field (electromagnetic pulse) is formed in the air ionized by radiation and light radiation. Although EMR does not have a special effect on the human body, as a result of its impact electronic equipment, communication lines and power transmission lines may be damaged. Under the influence of an electromagnetic pulse, voltage is induced in all unshielded conductors, and the longer the conductor, the higher it is. The result is a breakdown of insulation and failure of electrical appliances associated with cable networks. With an explosion at an altitude of 100 km and more, when other damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are irrelevant, it is possible to disrupt work and disable sensitive electrical equipment and radio receivers at considerable distances - up to several tens of kilometers from the epicenter of a powerful explosion, where other factors no longer bring destructive effect. Thus, it is possible to disable unprotected equipment in robust structures designed for heavy loads from a nuclear explosion, for example, in submerged command posts and silos of ICBMs. In addition, a significant ionization of the atmosphere after the explosion prevents the propagation of radio waves and the operation of the radar. EMP and atmospheric ionization generated by high-altitude explosions make it possible to use these effects to blind the anti-aircraft radar and radar systems of missile defense systems.
The basis of peaceful coexistence during the Cold War was the concept of guaranteed mutual destruction. That is, for all, even the most acute, disagreements, the US and the USSR did not go over a certain line, because they understood what it was fraught with. Victory in a global nuclear war could not have been achieved by any of the parties, and even the application of a disarming preventive strike did not guarantee that the aggressor would survive a retaliatory strike. Formed to the 70-th years, full-fledged nuclear triads and early missile warning systems made it possible to conduct retaliatory actions and deprive the enemy of the surprise factor. Even in the case of the destruction of 2 / 3, the strategic arsenal of one of the countries remaining ICBMs and SLBMs was enough to cause unacceptable damage to the enemy. Thus, according to US experts, the missile salvo strategic missile submarine pr. 667BRDM armed 16 RSM-29RM, capable of killing 6 million. Americans believe that the missile UGM-133A Trident II (D5) with the American SSBNs "Ohio" can cause no less loss. A nuclear explosion in a modern city will have disastrous consequences and lead to a large number of victims. The destruction of hazardous operations, fires and landslides will be additional aggravating factors that can increase the number of victims. People who have not received significant damage directly from the explosion, are likely to die trying to get out of the zone of continuous destruction. The lack of medical care and organized rescue will cause the death of many thousands of people injured and burned.
To be continued ...
Based on:
http://www.ivo.unn.ru/rhbz/
http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/article/1107/
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