Jutland Factors of controversial victory and implicit defeat
The battle of Jutland with its results and consequences gave rise to fights among historians no less fierce than the famous battle of Grand Fleet and Hochzeeflot itself. Liters of ink and printing ink, enclosed in kilotons of paper, long ago exceeded the volumes of onboard volleys of both fleets. Who is the winner, and who is defeated, the causes of the losses and the admirals' miscalculations - these are the most superficial set of questions that have long been whitened with polished bones. And yet, the theme of the Battle of Jutland is not forgotten, even under the richest layer of naval battles of the Second World War, eclipsed in scope all previous battles. Both commanders congratulated their monarchs on their victory, the bravura articles in the German and the wrathful in the English press died down, the awards were distributed, and the condolences were brought. After all this, in both camps, anchor mines, torn by the storm, began to surface issues - explosive and inconvenient. Why did Jutland not become the second Trafalgar, and the spirit of Horatio Nelson bypassed the Iron Duke conning tower with his presence? Why did Jelliko try not to win the battle, but to prevent the Germans from winning it? How could Hochzeeflot slip out of the English grip: Sheer's art or his luck? The set of questions that are sometimes given are mutually exclusive answers.
Sea claws of the Prussian eagle
The German Empire fell into the club of the great powers, smelling the powder of Metz and Sedan, directly from the Mirror Gallery of the Versailles Palace. The members of the old club were so crowded, and the newcomers, all the more so persistent, were not welcome. Germany developed rapidly, frankly frightening France and disturbing England. By the end of the 19th century, German colonies appeared on the world map - Germany was settling in Africa and penetrating into Asia. Replacing his reigning 99 days of the father, the liberal Frederick III, the new emperor Wilhelm II was brilliantly educated, harsh in judgment and saw the empire entrusted to him among the leaders of the world. And for this, according to the Kaiser, she had to get all the necessary attributes.
By the end of the XNUMXth century, Germany had the largest land army in Europe and, of course, well trained. She already had colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The colonial component of the empire was compact and much more modest than the traditional leaders of overseas expansion - England and France. There was one more attribute necessary to maintain the status of a great power. The feasibility of the existence of this impressive burden in all respects was doubtful for some, but Kaiser's childhood, full of exhausting studies and exercises, developed his will, determination and obstinacy. "Honorary Admiral of English fleet”(Such a title was given to him by his grandmother, Queen Victoria), he wanted to make his country a great sea power, and therefore make it the owner of a powerful fleet. Germany was no longer happy to be just the holder of a pocket coastal "fleet" for the limited Baltic. The Kaiser's ambitions and his vision of the status of Germany on the world stage meant the need to build numerous naval forces capable of acting (as was supposed) in the ocean. On March 28, 1898, the First Maritime Law came into force, providing for the development of the fleet until 1907. Subsequently, it was supplemented and adjusted. Germany henceforth ceased to be a purely continental state, preoccupied only with its “land” policy - for the first time the ocean fell into its sphere of interests.
For a long time, the ground army was the basis and guarantee of state independence and security for Prussia, the heart of the German Empire. She was a subject of pride, admiration and reverence. She did not spare the time and money. Now a new component has been added to this ancient caste. Wilhelm II loved the sea and everything connected with it - sea cruises to the shores of Norway became an invariable attribute of the Hohenzollern family’s rest. Now the sea had to fall in love with all the other Germans. The schools conducted essays on the maritime theme, schoolchildren were taken to warships with excursions. Romanticism of distant overseas travels and visits to exotic countries was strongly fostered. Ocean was supposed to give the Germans a "start in life." Industrial Germany fulfilled the will of its ruler and gave him ships. A lot of ships. The inspirer of the German naval power, the future Gross-Admiral Tirpitz developed a detailed plan for the creation of naval forces, only slightly inferior to Great Britain. Despite family ties, the Kaiser feared that the "enlightened mariners" would not tolerate rivalry and in their calculations keep Germany on the sidelines. Wilhelm's ambition could not come to terms with this: he constantly insisted that his country deserved a respectful and honorable place under the sun. And he was ready to defend this opinion.
Like the German army for Germany, the navy of Great Britain was the mainstay of its power, part of its culture and worldview. All, even the fact of its existence, England was obliged to its fleet. Well, still competent financial speculations about which honest gentlemen prefer not to speak out loud. Repeatedly the continent rose against the proud core. The Emperor Philip II sent curses towards Foggy Albion, delicately chirping the Bourbons, gazing thoughtfully out from under his famous triangle Napoleon. And the island remained unattainable and invincible. The fleets sent to its shores were destroyed by brave admirals and finished off storms and storms. The economies of the rival countries fell from the pressure of inflation and the shortage of goods, the rulers lived their lives on a secluded island or died from an apoplexy strike in the form of a silk officer's scarf. British sea power was regarded as something unshakable and permanent, to defy what is, at least, expensive and irrational, for the most part - simply stupid. Since the time of Napoleon, no one dared to challenge the primacy of Britain in the naval business - France, under the nephew of the great Emperor, squandered her strength in constant wars and colonial adventures, Russia went through a difficult period of reforms of Alexander II. The strength of the British fleet was not only in its multiplicity. It was staffed by experienced sailors and had a large number of naval bases and coal stations.
And then the door of the sea club suddenly opened, and unexpectedly and, according to island gentlemen, a new member impolitely swiftly entered. Relying on its colossal industrial power and a dynamically developing economy, which in some places has already overtaken the British, Germany, in a relatively short period of time, a little more than 20 years, received the second largest fleet in the world. The island was again challenged, and far more dangerous than in the days of the “little Corsican”. But having received such power in hands, one must also be able to use it, clearly understand why and in what amounts it is needed. Germany had ships, but did not have long maritime traditions. Her thinking remained continental, because the main enemies and rivals were on land. Nevertheless, England had a potential enemy and rival at sea, whose strength and boldness were dangerous to underestimate. The young Fleet of the open sea was breathing in the back of the head of the respectable Great Fleet.
Nobody wanted war. War was inevitable
Both opponents met a world battle with unfinished shipbuilding programs. The German fleet consisted of 15 dreadnoughts, 4 battlecruisers and 22 battleships, which were also formally considered to be battleships by classification. Until the end of 1914, it was replenished with two dreadnoughts of the type “König” (“Markgraf” and “Kronprinz”) and the battle cruiser “Derflinger”. In 1915, the XnUMX reconnaissance group joined the ranks of Lutzov. Significantly for 1, the German linear fleet did not increase: 1916 dreadnoughts of the Bayer type were built, equipped with 4-mm artillery of the main caliber, and the readiness of the first two, Bayern and Baden, was expected in the second half of the 380. The end of construction of the Hindenburg cruiser was planned for 1916. In 1917, the construction of four Mackensen-type battlecruisers equipped with 1915-mm artillery began - their entry into service was scheduled for the autumn of 356. At the disposal of the Germans was the remaining unfinished dreadnought Salamias, commissioned by Greece, but it was not intended to be put into operation.
By the beginning of the war, the British fleet had 20 dreadnoughts, 9 battleships and 41 battleships built 1894 – 1906. In August, 1914, the United Kingdom, requisitioned two battleships under construction (Edgincourt and Erin). Until the end of 1914, two ships of the Iron Duke type (Benbow and Emperor of India) and the battle cruiser Tiger entered service. By the time of the Battle of Jutland, the British fleet was significantly strengthened by completing the construction of the five newest superdreadnoughts, such as Queen Elizabeth, equipped with 381-mm artillery, two battleships of the Rivendzh type, and Almirante Latorre’s requisitioned order of the Chilean government, renamed “Canada”, renamed “Canada” The large and high-speed Rypals and Rinaun battlecruisers, built under the impression of the battle near the Falkland Islands, clearly did not have time to battle for the battle.
Fundamental to the German concept of war at sea was a plan for leveling forces, according to which it was necessary to reduce the advantage of the Grand Fleet in linear forces through successful actions of surface ships and submarines, so that later with the least risk to join with him in battle, having significant chances for success . In the interests of the English fleet, on the contrary, it was to impose a general battle, and the sooner the better, relying on their numerical superiority. Two years of war passed under the siege of Grand Fleet on German shores and bases. The British more often than their opponents went to sea, often penetrating far to the south, but the Germans managed to avoid a decisive clash. 16 December 1914, in the next campaign of German battlecruisers to the shores of Britain, Hochseeflot commander Admiral Ingenol had an excellent opportunity to attack and destroy part of the British forces, but in poor visibility the opponents missed each other. No more such a chance will be presented to the Germans during the whole war In 1915, Mr. Beatty was able to pat, but still let Hipper have Dogger-Banks leave. The German battleships were more in bases, and at the very top began to wonder: what does the fleet do? And the fleet at the beginning of 1916 had a new commander - Reinhard Scheer, nicknamed by subordinates for strict adherence to the most strict canons of discipline "man in the iron mask".
Periodic shelling by the German battlecruisers of the English coast has already begun to stir up the public, and the command of the Grand Fleet had to do something. In April, Lowestoft was shot at 1916, and this event only gave the British more motivation. It was supposed to send their light cruisers to Horns Reef, and then through the Kattegat to the Great Belt. This appetizing decoy duck was preparing, if not for the whole of Hochzeeflot, then, in any case, for the “Hipper gangsters”. Behind the backs of the light cruisers would lay in ambush the whole line fleet. However, at the same time, Scheer was developing his own operation, the purpose of which was to lure the British battlecruisers under the blow of his main forces. The plan provided for the shelling of the 1 th reconnaissance group of Sunderland, the nearest port from Rosyth, where the British battle cruisers were based. The calculation was made on the fact that the British will certainly go into the sea and rush in pursuit. Hipper will lure Admiral Beatty, who is carried away by the chase, and will bring him under the blow of the entire German fleet. In the event of adverse weather conditions, there was a second version of the plan: to send German battlecruisers to Skagerrak and the coasts of Norway, hoping that the British would decide to investigate the situation with part of their forces, and this part could also be destroyed. The result of this mutual set of decisions and actions was the battle of Jutland. A lot of minor and not so much factors influenced its course and results.
Intelligence service
Reinhard Scheer had 16 dreadnoughts at his disposal (all cash except for repairing König Albert, and Bayern had not yet reached the required level of readiness), 6 battleships, 5 battlecruisers, 11 light cruisers and 61 esmesems The Germans started a large-scale submarine war temporarily stopped because of the frequent protests of neutral countries, which allowed us to allocate submarines for the 16 operation - they had to be on duty at British bases and report on enemy movements. The air component was 10 airships - for long-distance reconnaissance.
Already 25 in May, the British Intelligence Directorate (in particular, the notorious 40 Room) recorded an increased activity of the German radio. Outcrops of submarines that used to announce their arrival to the position with a radiogram were noted. May 30 from the decrypted messages to the British Admiralty was aware that the enemy is starting up some major operation, which was immediately notified the command of the Navy. The British assumed that in any case a part of Hochzeeflot was preparing to leave. Bad weather did not allow Scheer to use his zeppelins. However, the Engandain airplanes, which were at the disposal of the British, were also of little use. The submarines could not detect the Grand Fleet’s launch into the sea in time and confined themselves to several contradictory reports: the discovery of individual ships. Thus, at the primary stage, the British were convinced that there is a high probability that the 1 th Hipp reconnaissance group would emerge, or even larger forces, but the call sign of the German flagship, the battleship Friedrich der Grosse, was broadcast by a radio station from Wilhelmshaven, and this simple trick misled the 40 Room. Jellico was sure that he was to deal only with part of the enemy’s fleet. As for Scheer, he learned that he was dealing with everything Grand Fleet, only directly confronted with him. The British ciphers were not read by the Germans.
Weather
The tangible impact on the course and the results of the battle had weather conditions. First of all, they deprived the Germans of the ability to conduct aerial reconnaissance. Although unfavorable weather to some extent played into the hands of the Germans, since clarity and good visibility are not beneficial to the side who wants to avoid fighting. In this case, it was Scheer. In the battle battle phase of the battlecruisers, by the time 17 was out, according to Admiral Beatty, the silhouettes of his ships stood out well on the western side of the horizon, while the German formation was hidden by fog. By the time the main forces entered the battle, the sea was calm, a gentle wind was blowing, but the sky was overcast. Reports by British flagships indicate that after 18 hours, visibility did not exceed 60 cable. Although there were time gaps when it was possible to see something at a distance of about 80 cable. Due to these conditions, even Jellico did not have reliable data not only about the exact composition of the enemy’s forces (40’s room only warned about Scheer's exit and direction of movement), but also about her own losses. So, in the morning of June 1, he asked for signals about the whereabouts of Indefatigebla, which had long since sunk in the first stage of the battle. Of course, weather factors can not be attributed to the decisive, but they, no doubt, had an impact on the events of May 31 - June 1.
The technical side
The most controversial aspect that has overgrown with its mythology and legendary. Of course, the British had quantitative superiority over their adversary: under the flag of Jellico, there were 28 dreadnoughts, 9 battlecruisers, 8 armored cruisers, 26 light cruisers and 79 destroyers. The indisputable advantage of the British side is the presence in the 7 formation of the newest battleships of the type "Queen Elizabeth" and "Rivendzh", equipped with 381-mm artillery. The nomenclature of the main caliber of the British fleet consisted of 305, 343, 356 and 381 mm. The Germans opposed this 280 and 305 mm, respectively.
However, it would be too rash to compare only calibers. The shells of German guns in general showed more successful results - their fuses had a time delay, but the British did not. This allowed the German shells in most cases to explode after penetration of armor. English projectiles often split when hit, with detonation of Liddite stuffed in them. Or there was an undermining at the time of penetration of armor due to the zero delay of the fuse. Admiral Jellico, directing the artillery department in the Admiralty, worked on the creation of armor-piercing shells, effective at large angles of incidence at great distances, but his departure slowed down these works. And the English fleet went to the Battle of Jutland with less high-quality projectiles than his opponent.
More perfect were the designs of the German powder charges. The main charge was in the sleeve, the auxiliary - in the silk cap, but did not have a flammable charge. The only flammable charge was at the end of the main charge at the bottom of the sleeve. The English charges consisted of four parts, which were in a silk cap, and had igniting charges of black powder. Thus, the risk of fire in the British cellars of the main caliber was much higher, in addition, German gunpowder varieties were less susceptible to decomposition. The British guns in general had a greater range than the German ones, due to the greater angle of elevation. 343- and 381-mm guns could rise to 20 degrees, which ensured a range of up to 21 thousand meters. German 305-mm guns had a trunk lift angle up to 13,5 degrees and had a range of 17 – 19 km, with the exception of the Prince Regent Luitpold dreadnought, which was at the level of 16 degrees, it could send projectiles to the 20,5 km distance.
The Germans drew the proper conclusions from the Battle of Dogger Bank and took measures to improve the systems of flooding the cellars. The total flooding of the cellar on the German ship took 15 minutes - in English around 30. The British considered the rate of fire of their guns to be insufficient, therefore, on the battlecruisers and some battleships, the charges taken out of the protective covers were prepared in advance. To speed up the supply to the towers, fire doors were kept open between the turret area and the reloading compartment. No less than the 9 towers of the main caliber of the German battlecruisers were smashed by enemy shells, but none of them exploded.
In Hoehseeflot dreadnoughts, more attention was paid to protection: their hulls were divided into a large number of watertight compartments. For example, the largest German battleships had 6 boiler rooms, while their British opponents no more than three. The desire to maximize armor protection forced the Germans to place on their ships less heavy artillery. Their speed was lower than that of the British, the height of the freeboard was also relatively low, which did not always have a positive effect on the seafaring qualities of the German battleships and battle cruisers. Just look at the photos of the deep-burrowing Derflinger or Moltke at full speed. It is believed that the German armor of the Krupp concern was the best in the world. However, the post-war tests of the dreadnought Baden as a trophy showed that it was still inferior to the British armor of the Vikkers firm, which surpassed the German one by 10 – 15%. But the German ships were armored more rationally, and besides, on the day of the battle of Jutland, the British did not generally shoot very well, especially the battle cruisers Beatty.
A few words should be said about light forces. By the year 1916, the Germans had some need for modern light cruisers (turbines, starting with the type "Magdeburg"). Germany suffered significant losses in this class of ships at the initial stage of the war and now felt a shortage of them. The construction of a large-scale series of Konigsberg ships was still ongoing, but not a single cruiser in this series managed to take part in the Battle of Jutland. Most German light cruisers were re-equipped with 105-mm guns to more familiar 150-mm. A similar rearmament was carried out by German destroyers - a clearly insufficient caliber 88 mm for them was replaced by 105 mm. These guns were much better than the 102-mm guns mounted on the English destroyers — they were lighter and had a greater angle of elevation. However, the German destroyers were generally smaller than the British, had a lower freeboard and were inferior to their opponents in seaworthiness and cruising range. In the structure of the German light forces there were no destroyer leader class ships.
Summing up the very brief and superficial analysis of both fleets, it can be concluded that each side had its own strengths and weaknesses. There were more British ships, among them were battleships equipped with 343- and 381-mm artillery. The total number of trunks caliber 280 mm and above was calculated 344 from the British and 244 from their opponents. The weight of the onboard volley was related in terms of the 2,5 to the 1, also in favor of the Grand Fleet. German ships had better quality shells and more rational protection, but their navigability was lower and their speed lower.
Tactical decisions
The age of sails is long gone, but the British and Germans still practiced fighting in the wake of the wake. Both commanders generally acted within the framework of the canons of the era. In the first phase of the battle, Admiral Beatty, commander of the battlecruisers, assigned the 5 squadron of high-speed battleships (all of the newest with 381-mm artillery) assigned to him in 5 miles behind him. When the flagship Lyon sent a signal to turn on the enemy, the battleship Barham under the flag of Evan-Thomas simply did not notice this order. The battleship commander tried to convince the squadron commander to follow Beatty, but he did not want to act "without an order." Only after 7 minutes, after the Lyon tapped the follow-up order with a searchlight, did Evan-Thomas begin to make an evolution, as a result he was lagging behind the battlecruisers by almost 10 miles 10. Neither Beatty nor Evan-Thomas, unlike, for example, Hipper, who reported on the battle with battlecruisers and battleships, did not bother to tell Jellico about the detection and approximate location of the German fleet. Only in 16.45, after almost two hours of battle, the English commander finds out that he is dealing not only with Hipper ships, but that the Open Sea Fleet is moving towards him.
In the actions of the German side, there were also miscalculations. In general, Scheer learned that the Grand Fleet was not in bases, but at sea, at about 18.30, when he was informed of the results of the interrogation of prisoners from English destroyers. A lot of criticism is caused by his maneuver in 18.55, when the entire German fleet turned 180 degrees and went to meet the main forces of the British, practically performing the classic "crossing T" for them. But after only half an hour before this very successful maneuver, having turned all his strength for the first time, Scheer, it would seem, managed to start a breakaway from his formidable opponent, hiding in the fog. The German commander explained his sudden "return" rather indistinctly enough: they said he wanted to help the light cruiser Wiesbaden, which was almost immobilized and suffering from fires. As a result, Scheer was then forced to order the battlecruisers to “attack, regardless of loss”, in order to withdraw their battleships from under the blow.
Interesting events took place during the night pursuit phase. Around 21.40, the German light cruisers of the 4 reconnaissance group witnessed how flagship Beatty "Lion" requested the short calls of the line cruiser "Princess Royal" for the current day, because "its own signal book was destroyed." He responded by transmitting data with a light signal. So the German fleet became known English secret callsigns.
During the night of the fight Jellico did not know that the German fleet was literally taking him astern, and he could have found out. The fact is that the Marlboro battleship damaged by a torpedo during a day battle lowered the course, and the 5-I squadron of the high-speed battleships Evan-Thomas following it did not know anything about it and also reduced the course, thus lagging behind the main forces. Westfalen and other dreadnoughts of Scheer were identified in 23.40 from one of its ships, the battleship Malaya, but the commander of Malaya did not dare to open fire without the admiral’s orders. Moreover, not to find himself, he forbade the use of radio. The Germans were free. The Moltke cruiser, having strayed off course, passed through the darkness through the formation of Jellico's dreadnoughts and was definitely identified from the Danderer dreadnought. However, his commander considered it unnecessary to open fire in order "not to indicate to the enemy the location of his linear forces."
Similar night adventures have fallen to the lot of heavily damaged "Seidlitz". Around midnight, he was identified with Marlboro, and Rivervenge even requested a call sign. Having received the wrong answer, the British did nothing. Edgincourt did not say anything, from which they also noticed a heavily damaged battlecruiser, but decided "not to betray their position." Light cruisers who accompanied the British battleships, seeing that their commanders were doing nothing, limited themselves to observation. In the morning, “Seidlits” crawled to Horns Reef with a 7-knot junction. Jelliko was seriously preparing for a new day battle, until 3 hours 30 minutes received a radiogram that the German fleet had already approached its bases. New Trafalgar frankly failed.
Who left the sea
The main result of the Battle of Jutland was that already after 48 hours, Jellico could bring no less than 25 dreadnoughts into the sea, not counting ships of other classes. The German fleet, although it felt almost like a winner, sinking the 3 of the English battlecruisers, could not make a new exit due to too much damage. The English fleet lost, as already mentioned, the 3 battlecruisers, the 3 armored cruisers and the 8 destroyers. Scheer lost the battleship Lutzov next to the base, the old battleship Pommern, the 4 light cruiser and the 5 destroyers, which had sunk from damage received. German ships received a total of 120 hits, the British - 124. The percentage of hits per gun is in favor of the Open Sea Fleet.
The Germans, despite the joy of large losses from the enemy, made sure that in open battle, the domination of the sea from Britain did not pull out. Other methods were needed, in particular, an unrestricted submarine war, which, on the one hand, almost brought England to its knees, on the other, gave a weighty reason for the United States to enter the war, which could not allow Germany to win. Disputes about the true winners and losers, unrealized opportunities and missed chances of both sides still abate. However, knowing the outcome of the First World War, it is safe to say that in the end both sides actually lost. The German fleet was destroyed by self-sinking at Scapa Flow, its remnants distributed and sold out. The once mighty Grand Fleet, entangled by America imposed by a system of contractual agreements, has been reduced by several orders, making it now the leading maritime power of the United States.
Sea claws of the Prussian eagle
Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the creator of German sea power
The German Empire fell into the club of the great powers, smelling the powder of Metz and Sedan, directly from the Mirror Gallery of the Versailles Palace. The members of the old club were so crowded, and the newcomers, all the more so persistent, were not welcome. Germany developed rapidly, frankly frightening France and disturbing England. By the end of the 19th century, German colonies appeared on the world map - Germany was settling in Africa and penetrating into Asia. Replacing his reigning 99 days of the father, the liberal Frederick III, the new emperor Wilhelm II was brilliantly educated, harsh in judgment and saw the empire entrusted to him among the leaders of the world. And for this, according to the Kaiser, she had to get all the necessary attributes.
By the end of the XNUMXth century, Germany had the largest land army in Europe and, of course, well trained. She already had colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The colonial component of the empire was compact and much more modest than the traditional leaders of overseas expansion - England and France. There was one more attribute necessary to maintain the status of a great power. The feasibility of the existence of this impressive burden in all respects was doubtful for some, but Kaiser's childhood, full of exhausting studies and exercises, developed his will, determination and obstinacy. "Honorary Admiral of English fleet”(Such a title was given to him by his grandmother, Queen Victoria), he wanted to make his country a great sea power, and therefore make it the owner of a powerful fleet. Germany was no longer happy to be just the holder of a pocket coastal "fleet" for the limited Baltic. The Kaiser's ambitions and his vision of the status of Germany on the world stage meant the need to build numerous naval forces capable of acting (as was supposed) in the ocean. On March 28, 1898, the First Maritime Law came into force, providing for the development of the fleet until 1907. Subsequently, it was supplemented and adjusted. Germany henceforth ceased to be a purely continental state, preoccupied only with its “land” policy - for the first time the ocean fell into its sphere of interests.
For a long time, the ground army was the basis and guarantee of state independence and security for Prussia, the heart of the German Empire. She was a subject of pride, admiration and reverence. She did not spare the time and money. Now a new component has been added to this ancient caste. Wilhelm II loved the sea and everything connected with it - sea cruises to the shores of Norway became an invariable attribute of the Hohenzollern family’s rest. Now the sea had to fall in love with all the other Germans. The schools conducted essays on the maritime theme, schoolchildren were taken to warships with excursions. Romanticism of distant overseas travels and visits to exotic countries was strongly fostered. Ocean was supposed to give the Germans a "start in life." Industrial Germany fulfilled the will of its ruler and gave him ships. A lot of ships. The inspirer of the German naval power, the future Gross-Admiral Tirpitz developed a detailed plan for the creation of naval forces, only slightly inferior to Great Britain. Despite family ties, the Kaiser feared that the "enlightened mariners" would not tolerate rivalry and in their calculations keep Germany on the sidelines. Wilhelm's ambition could not come to terms with this: he constantly insisted that his country deserved a respectful and honorable place under the sun. And he was ready to defend this opinion.
Caricature of the British Empire
Like the German army for Germany, the navy of Great Britain was the mainstay of its power, part of its culture and worldview. All, even the fact of its existence, England was obliged to its fleet. Well, still competent financial speculations about which honest gentlemen prefer not to speak out loud. Repeatedly the continent rose against the proud core. The Emperor Philip II sent curses towards Foggy Albion, delicately chirping the Bourbons, gazing thoughtfully out from under his famous triangle Napoleon. And the island remained unattainable and invincible. The fleets sent to its shores were destroyed by brave admirals and finished off storms and storms. The economies of the rival countries fell from the pressure of inflation and the shortage of goods, the rulers lived their lives on a secluded island or died from an apoplexy strike in the form of a silk officer's scarf. British sea power was regarded as something unshakable and permanent, to defy what is, at least, expensive and irrational, for the most part - simply stupid. Since the time of Napoleon, no one dared to challenge the primacy of Britain in the naval business - France, under the nephew of the great Emperor, squandered her strength in constant wars and colonial adventures, Russia went through a difficult period of reforms of Alexander II. The strength of the British fleet was not only in its multiplicity. It was staffed by experienced sailors and had a large number of naval bases and coal stations.
And then the door of the sea club suddenly opened, and unexpectedly and, according to island gentlemen, a new member impolitely swiftly entered. Relying on its colossal industrial power and a dynamically developing economy, which in some places has already overtaken the British, Germany, in a relatively short period of time, a little more than 20 years, received the second largest fleet in the world. The island was again challenged, and far more dangerous than in the days of the “little Corsican”. But having received such power in hands, one must also be able to use it, clearly understand why and in what amounts it is needed. Germany had ships, but did not have long maritime traditions. Her thinking remained continental, because the main enemies and rivals were on land. Nevertheless, England had a potential enemy and rival at sea, whose strength and boldness were dangerous to underestimate. The young Fleet of the open sea was breathing in the back of the head of the respectable Great Fleet.
Nobody wanted war. War was inevitable
Both opponents met a world battle with unfinished shipbuilding programs. The German fleet consisted of 15 dreadnoughts, 4 battlecruisers and 22 battleships, which were also formally considered to be battleships by classification. Until the end of 1914, it was replenished with two dreadnoughts of the type “König” (“Markgraf” and “Kronprinz”) and the battle cruiser “Derflinger”. In 1915, the XnUMX reconnaissance group joined the ranks of Lutzov. Significantly for 1, the German linear fleet did not increase: 1916 dreadnoughts of the Bayer type were built, equipped with 4-mm artillery of the main caliber, and the readiness of the first two, Bayern and Baden, was expected in the second half of the 380. The end of construction of the Hindenburg cruiser was planned for 1916. In 1917, the construction of four Mackensen-type battlecruisers equipped with 1915-mm artillery began - their entry into service was scheduled for the autumn of 356. At the disposal of the Germans was the remaining unfinished dreadnought Salamias, commissioned by Greece, but it was not intended to be put into operation.
By the beginning of the war, the British fleet had 20 dreadnoughts, 9 battleships and 41 battleships built 1894 – 1906. In August, 1914, the United Kingdom, requisitioned two battleships under construction (Edgincourt and Erin). Until the end of 1914, two ships of the Iron Duke type (Benbow and Emperor of India) and the battle cruiser Tiger entered service. By the time of the Battle of Jutland, the British fleet was significantly strengthened by completing the construction of the five newest superdreadnoughts, such as Queen Elizabeth, equipped with 381-mm artillery, two battleships of the Rivendzh type, and Almirante Latorre’s requisitioned order of the Chilean government, renamed “Canada”, renamed “Canada” The large and high-speed Rypals and Rinaun battlecruisers, built under the impression of the battle near the Falkland Islands, clearly did not have time to battle for the battle.
Fundamental to the German concept of war at sea was a plan for leveling forces, according to which it was necessary to reduce the advantage of the Grand Fleet in linear forces through successful actions of surface ships and submarines, so that later with the least risk to join with him in battle, having significant chances for success . In the interests of the English fleet, on the contrary, it was to impose a general battle, and the sooner the better, relying on their numerical superiority. Two years of war passed under the siege of Grand Fleet on German shores and bases. The British more often than their opponents went to sea, often penetrating far to the south, but the Germans managed to avoid a decisive clash. 16 December 1914, in the next campaign of German battlecruisers to the shores of Britain, Hochseeflot commander Admiral Ingenol had an excellent opportunity to attack and destroy part of the British forces, but in poor visibility the opponents missed each other. No more such a chance will be presented to the Germans during the whole war In 1915, Mr. Beatty was able to pat, but still let Hipper have Dogger-Banks leave. The German battleships were more in bases, and at the very top began to wonder: what does the fleet do? And the fleet at the beginning of 1916 had a new commander - Reinhard Scheer, nicknamed by subordinates for strict adherence to the most strict canons of discipline "man in the iron mask".
Periodic shelling by the German battlecruisers of the English coast has already begun to stir up the public, and the command of the Grand Fleet had to do something. In April, Lowestoft was shot at 1916, and this event only gave the British more motivation. It was supposed to send their light cruisers to Horns Reef, and then through the Kattegat to the Great Belt. This appetizing decoy duck was preparing, if not for the whole of Hochzeeflot, then, in any case, for the “Hipper gangsters”. Behind the backs of the light cruisers would lay in ambush the whole line fleet. However, at the same time, Scheer was developing his own operation, the purpose of which was to lure the British battlecruisers under the blow of his main forces. The plan provided for the shelling of the 1 th reconnaissance group of Sunderland, the nearest port from Rosyth, where the British battle cruisers were based. The calculation was made on the fact that the British will certainly go into the sea and rush in pursuit. Hipper will lure Admiral Beatty, who is carried away by the chase, and will bring him under the blow of the entire German fleet. In the event of adverse weather conditions, there was a second version of the plan: to send German battlecruisers to Skagerrak and the coasts of Norway, hoping that the British would decide to investigate the situation with part of their forces, and this part could also be destroyed. The result of this mutual set of decisions and actions was the battle of Jutland. A lot of minor and not so much factors influenced its course and results.
Intelligence service
Reinhard Scheer, Commander of the High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland
Reinhard Scheer had 16 dreadnoughts at his disposal (all cash except for repairing König Albert, and Bayern had not yet reached the required level of readiness), 6 battleships, 5 battlecruisers, 11 light cruisers and 61 esmesems The Germans started a large-scale submarine war temporarily stopped because of the frequent protests of neutral countries, which allowed us to allocate submarines for the 16 operation - they had to be on duty at British bases and report on enemy movements. The air component was 10 airships - for long-distance reconnaissance.
Already 25 in May, the British Intelligence Directorate (in particular, the notorious 40 Room) recorded an increased activity of the German radio. Outcrops of submarines that used to announce their arrival to the position with a radiogram were noted. May 30 from the decrypted messages to the British Admiralty was aware that the enemy is starting up some major operation, which was immediately notified the command of the Navy. The British assumed that in any case a part of Hochzeeflot was preparing to leave. Bad weather did not allow Scheer to use his zeppelins. However, the Engandain airplanes, which were at the disposal of the British, were also of little use. The submarines could not detect the Grand Fleet’s launch into the sea in time and confined themselves to several contradictory reports: the discovery of individual ships. Thus, at the primary stage, the British were convinced that there is a high probability that the 1 th Hipp reconnaissance group would emerge, or even larger forces, but the call sign of the German flagship, the battleship Friedrich der Grosse, was broadcast by a radio station from Wilhelmshaven, and this simple trick misled the 40 Room. Jellico was sure that he was to deal only with part of the enemy’s fleet. As for Scheer, he learned that he was dealing with everything Grand Fleet, only directly confronted with him. The British ciphers were not read by the Germans.
Weather
The tangible impact on the course and the results of the battle had weather conditions. First of all, they deprived the Germans of the ability to conduct aerial reconnaissance. Although unfavorable weather to some extent played into the hands of the Germans, since clarity and good visibility are not beneficial to the side who wants to avoid fighting. In this case, it was Scheer. In the battle battle phase of the battlecruisers, by the time 17 was out, according to Admiral Beatty, the silhouettes of his ships stood out well on the western side of the horizon, while the German formation was hidden by fog. By the time the main forces entered the battle, the sea was calm, a gentle wind was blowing, but the sky was overcast. Reports by British flagships indicate that after 18 hours, visibility did not exceed 60 cable. Although there were time gaps when it was possible to see something at a distance of about 80 cable. Due to these conditions, even Jellico did not have reliable data not only about the exact composition of the enemy’s forces (40’s room only warned about Scheer's exit and direction of movement), but also about her own losses. So, in the morning of June 1, he asked for signals about the whereabouts of Indefatigebla, which had long since sunk in the first stage of the battle. Of course, weather factors can not be attributed to the decisive, but they, no doubt, had an impact on the events of May 31 - June 1.
The technical side
The most controversial aspect that has overgrown with its mythology and legendary. Of course, the British had quantitative superiority over their adversary: under the flag of Jellico, there were 28 dreadnoughts, 9 battlecruisers, 8 armored cruisers, 26 light cruisers and 79 destroyers. The indisputable advantage of the British side is the presence in the 7 formation of the newest battleships of the type "Queen Elizabeth" and "Rivendzh", equipped with 381-mm artillery. The nomenclature of the main caliber of the British fleet consisted of 305, 343, 356 and 381 mm. The Germans opposed this 280 and 305 mm, respectively.
However, it would be too rash to compare only calibers. The shells of German guns in general showed more successful results - their fuses had a time delay, but the British did not. This allowed the German shells in most cases to explode after penetration of armor. English projectiles often split when hit, with detonation of Liddite stuffed in them. Or there was an undermining at the time of penetration of armor due to the zero delay of the fuse. Admiral Jellico, directing the artillery department in the Admiralty, worked on the creation of armor-piercing shells, effective at large angles of incidence at great distances, but his departure slowed down these works. And the English fleet went to the Battle of Jutland with less high-quality projectiles than his opponent.
More perfect were the designs of the German powder charges. The main charge was in the sleeve, the auxiliary - in the silk cap, but did not have a flammable charge. The only flammable charge was at the end of the main charge at the bottom of the sleeve. The English charges consisted of four parts, which were in a silk cap, and had igniting charges of black powder. Thus, the risk of fire in the British cellars of the main caliber was much higher, in addition, German gunpowder varieties were less susceptible to decomposition. The British guns in general had a greater range than the German ones, due to the greater angle of elevation. 343- and 381-mm guns could rise to 20 degrees, which ensured a range of up to 21 thousand meters. German 305-mm guns had a trunk lift angle up to 13,5 degrees and had a range of 17 – 19 km, with the exception of the Prince Regent Luitpold dreadnought, which was at the level of 16 degrees, it could send projectiles to the 20,5 km distance.
The Germans drew the proper conclusions from the Battle of Dogger Bank and took measures to improve the systems of flooding the cellars. The total flooding of the cellar on the German ship took 15 minutes - in English around 30. The British considered the rate of fire of their guns to be insufficient, therefore, on the battlecruisers and some battleships, the charges taken out of the protective covers were prepared in advance. To speed up the supply to the towers, fire doors were kept open between the turret area and the reloading compartment. No less than the 9 towers of the main caliber of the German battlecruisers were smashed by enemy shells, but none of them exploded.
In Hoehseeflot dreadnoughts, more attention was paid to protection: their hulls were divided into a large number of watertight compartments. For example, the largest German battleships had 6 boiler rooms, while their British opponents no more than three. The desire to maximize armor protection forced the Germans to place on their ships less heavy artillery. Their speed was lower than that of the British, the height of the freeboard was also relatively low, which did not always have a positive effect on the seafaring qualities of the German battleships and battle cruisers. Just look at the photos of the deep-burrowing Derflinger or Moltke at full speed. It is believed that the German armor of the Krupp concern was the best in the world. However, the post-war tests of the dreadnought Baden as a trophy showed that it was still inferior to the British armor of the Vikkers firm, which surpassed the German one by 10 – 15%. But the German ships were armored more rationally, and besides, on the day of the battle of Jutland, the British did not generally shoot very well, especially the battle cruisers Beatty.
A few words should be said about light forces. By the year 1916, the Germans had some need for modern light cruisers (turbines, starting with the type "Magdeburg"). Germany suffered significant losses in this class of ships at the initial stage of the war and now felt a shortage of them. The construction of a large-scale series of Konigsberg ships was still ongoing, but not a single cruiser in this series managed to take part in the Battle of Jutland. Most German light cruisers were re-equipped with 105-mm guns to more familiar 150-mm. A similar rearmament was carried out by German destroyers - a clearly insufficient caliber 88 mm for them was replaced by 105 mm. These guns were much better than the 102-mm guns mounted on the English destroyers — they were lighter and had a greater angle of elevation. However, the German destroyers were generally smaller than the British, had a lower freeboard and were inferior to their opponents in seaworthiness and cruising range. In the structure of the German light forces there were no destroyer leader class ships.
Summing up the very brief and superficial analysis of both fleets, it can be concluded that each side had its own strengths and weaknesses. There were more British ships, among them were battleships equipped with 343- and 381-mm artillery. The total number of trunks caliber 280 mm and above was calculated 344 from the British and 244 from their opponents. The weight of the onboard volley was related in terms of the 2,5 to the 1, also in favor of the Grand Fleet. German ships had better quality shells and more rational protection, but their navigability was lower and their speed lower.
Tactical decisions
Commander of the Big Fleet, Admiral Jellico
The age of sails is long gone, but the British and Germans still practiced fighting in the wake of the wake. Both commanders generally acted within the framework of the canons of the era. In the first phase of the battle, Admiral Beatty, commander of the battlecruisers, assigned the 5 squadron of high-speed battleships (all of the newest with 381-mm artillery) assigned to him in 5 miles behind him. When the flagship Lyon sent a signal to turn on the enemy, the battleship Barham under the flag of Evan-Thomas simply did not notice this order. The battleship commander tried to convince the squadron commander to follow Beatty, but he did not want to act "without an order." Only after 7 minutes, after the Lyon tapped the follow-up order with a searchlight, did Evan-Thomas begin to make an evolution, as a result he was lagging behind the battlecruisers by almost 10 miles 10. Neither Beatty nor Evan-Thomas, unlike, for example, Hipper, who reported on the battle with battlecruisers and battleships, did not bother to tell Jellico about the detection and approximate location of the German fleet. Only in 16.45, after almost two hours of battle, the English commander finds out that he is dealing not only with Hipper ships, but that the Open Sea Fleet is moving towards him.
In the actions of the German side, there were also miscalculations. In general, Scheer learned that the Grand Fleet was not in bases, but at sea, at about 18.30, when he was informed of the results of the interrogation of prisoners from English destroyers. A lot of criticism is caused by his maneuver in 18.55, when the entire German fleet turned 180 degrees and went to meet the main forces of the British, practically performing the classic "crossing T" for them. But after only half an hour before this very successful maneuver, having turned all his strength for the first time, Scheer, it would seem, managed to start a breakaway from his formidable opponent, hiding in the fog. The German commander explained his sudden "return" rather indistinctly enough: they said he wanted to help the light cruiser Wiesbaden, which was almost immobilized and suffering from fires. As a result, Scheer was then forced to order the battlecruisers to “attack, regardless of loss”, in order to withdraw their battleships from under the blow.
Interesting events took place during the night pursuit phase. Around 21.40, the German light cruisers of the 4 reconnaissance group witnessed how flagship Beatty "Lion" requested the short calls of the line cruiser "Princess Royal" for the current day, because "its own signal book was destroyed." He responded by transmitting data with a light signal. So the German fleet became known English secret callsigns.
During the night of the fight Jellico did not know that the German fleet was literally taking him astern, and he could have found out. The fact is that the Marlboro battleship damaged by a torpedo during a day battle lowered the course, and the 5-I squadron of the high-speed battleships Evan-Thomas following it did not know anything about it and also reduced the course, thus lagging behind the main forces. Westfalen and other dreadnoughts of Scheer were identified in 23.40 from one of its ships, the battleship Malaya, but the commander of Malaya did not dare to open fire without the admiral’s orders. Moreover, not to find himself, he forbade the use of radio. The Germans were free. The Moltke cruiser, having strayed off course, passed through the darkness through the formation of Jellico's dreadnoughts and was definitely identified from the Danderer dreadnought. However, his commander considered it unnecessary to open fire in order "not to indicate to the enemy the location of his linear forces."
Similar night adventures have fallen to the lot of heavily damaged "Seidlitz". Around midnight, he was identified with Marlboro, and Rivervenge even requested a call sign. Having received the wrong answer, the British did nothing. Edgincourt did not say anything, from which they also noticed a heavily damaged battlecruiser, but decided "not to betray their position." Light cruisers who accompanied the British battleships, seeing that their commanders were doing nothing, limited themselves to observation. In the morning, “Seidlits” crawled to Horns Reef with a 7-knot junction. Jelliko was seriously preparing for a new day battle, until 3 hours 30 minutes received a radiogram that the German fleet had already approached its bases. New Trafalgar frankly failed.
Who left the sea
The main result of the Battle of Jutland was that already after 48 hours, Jellico could bring no less than 25 dreadnoughts into the sea, not counting ships of other classes. The German fleet, although it felt almost like a winner, sinking the 3 of the English battlecruisers, could not make a new exit due to too much damage. The English fleet lost, as already mentioned, the 3 battlecruisers, the 3 armored cruisers and the 8 destroyers. Scheer lost the battleship Lutzov next to the base, the old battleship Pommern, the 4 light cruiser and the 5 destroyers, which had sunk from damage received. German ships received a total of 120 hits, the British - 124. The percentage of hits per gun is in favor of the Open Sea Fleet.
The Germans, despite the joy of large losses from the enemy, made sure that in open battle, the domination of the sea from Britain did not pull out. Other methods were needed, in particular, an unrestricted submarine war, which, on the one hand, almost brought England to its knees, on the other, gave a weighty reason for the United States to enter the war, which could not allow Germany to win. Disputes about the true winners and losers, unrealized opportunities and missed chances of both sides still abate. However, knowing the outcome of the First World War, it is safe to say that in the end both sides actually lost. The German fleet was destroyed by self-sinking at Scapa Flow, its remnants distributed and sold out. The once mighty Grand Fleet, entangled by America imposed by a system of contractual agreements, has been reduced by several orders, making it now the leading maritime power of the United States.
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