Anarchists in the postwar USSR. How in the Soviet Union again appeared supporters of "powerless"
Separate illegal circles of students and intellectuals sympathizing with anarchism continued to exist in the 1930, and in the 1950 — 1960. But only in the 1980-ies did the real rebirth of the anarchist movement in the Soviet Union begin, connected with the process of gradual liberalization of political life in the country. As a result, by the end of the 1980 in a number of republics of the USSR, there was a rather active anarchist movement, represented by a number of organizations, groups and publications of various ideological orientations - from the “right” market anarchists who recognized the capitalist economy to the left-most anarcho- Communists who denied, in addition to the state, private property, wage labor and commodity-money relations.
The anarchist movement, which was quite numerous and influential in Russia before the October Revolution 1917 of the year and during the Civil War, was actually destroyed in the second half of the 20s as a result of the repressive policies of the Bolshevik government. First of all, the repressions followed against the directions that posed a real danger to the new government - the anarcho-syndicalists and the anarcho-communists. But the groups of "mystical anarchists", "anarcho-biocosmists", "extarchists", etc. they used the condescending attitude of the Soviet leadership as discrediting the anarchist movement and confirming the conclusions of Bolshevik theorists about the degradation of anarchism and the loss of the revolutionary component. But in the second half of the 20-ies repression touched and these extravagant and small sects. By the beginning of the 30s, the anarchist movement in the Soviet Union had de facto ceased to exist. Some of the former prominent figures of anarchism went over to Bolshevik positions and even received posts in the Soviet state apparatus, some managed to leave the country, the rest were in prisons and camps. During the years of Stalin’s repressions, even those former anarchists who had long recognized the Soviet government and worked in the Soviet state institutions were arrested and destroyed.
Up until the middle of the 1950s, until the famous “Khrushchev Thaw”, there was practically nothing heard about anarchists in the Soviet Union. The situation changed with the death of Stalin and some weakening of the totalitarian regime in the country. The debunking of the personality cult at the 20th CPSU Congress, the rehabilitation of politically repressed citizens and the amnesty for political prisoners did their job. The country has begun to increase the number of people who are critical of the practice of state socialism and are looking for an alternative to it among the teachings opposed to the official Soviet ideology. So, in the middle of the 1950-s, among young Moscow historian students who gathered at the monument to Vladimir Mayakovsky, an illegal anarcho-syndicalist orientation group led by Vladimir Osipov (in the future - a well-known nationalist), whose members were going to "remove" the general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, acted. N.S. Khrushchev.
Anarcho-syndicalist group at Moscow State University - “Osipov-Ivanov group”
One of the most vivid examples of clandestine leftist radical groups that existed in these years is the group formed in the autumn of 1957 in the third year of the full-time department of the history department of Moscow State University. Its informal leader was twenty-two-year-old Anatoly Ivanov, who stood out because he was not a member of the Komsomol. His comrades Vladislav Krasnov and Vladimir Osipov, on the contrary, were former Komsomol activists (Krasnov - the secretary of the Komsomol organization of the course, and Osipov - the participant of numerous trips to the “virgin land”). Studying in the library literature on ethnography and linguistics, Anatoly Ivanov came across the works of M. A. Bakunin, began to study them, and soon became a supporter of anarchist teaching. Almost at the same time, as Ivanov became interested in anarchism, an emergency occurred at the history department of Moscow State University - the VLKSM bureau of the faculty was arrested on charges of creating an anti-Soviet organization. Thus began the famous case of the left-radical Krasnopevtsev circle (Lev Krasnopevtsev then became a prominent historian). Ivanov, who did not communicate with Krasnopevtsev and his associates, nevertheless, fell under the general wave of repression and was expelled from the faculty, but after the requests of the parents, he was reinstated in the correspondence department.
After the monument to V. Mayakovsky was opened in 1958 and regular meetings of youth critical to the policies of the country's leadership and the party began near it, Ivanov and Osipov began to regularly appear at the monument and recruit sympathizers. It can be said that the actual formation of the circle was in October of 1958, when several key activists joined it: Ivanov, Osipov, Anatoly Ivanovich Ivanov (nicknamed Rakhmetov, b. 1933), poet and translator Alexander Nikiforovich Orlov (pseudonym Nor, Born 1932), Evgeny Shchedrin (born 1939), Tatyana Gerasimova. The circle basically gathered at the apartment of Anatoly Ivanov and was engaged in reading and discussing reports, preparing materials for the release of a theoretical publication. However, law enforcement agencies managed to quickly get on the trail of "underground workers" - already 20 December 1958. Ivanov’s apartment was searched. State security officers seized the manuscript of the "Working Opposition". In this work, Ivanov tried to justify the incorrectness of the "Soviet" version of socialism, coming from Marx and Lenin, and opposed to him "democratic socialism", going from anarchists and the "Workers' Opposition" to the 1956 revolution. in Budapest. As it turned out as a result of investigative actions, at the beginning of 1958, Ivanov got acquainted with Igor Vasilievich Avdeev, born 1934, a last year student at the Moscow Power Engineering Institute. At the request of Avdeev, Ivanov wrote an article "Waiting for" in which he spoke about the case of the circle of Lev Krasnopevtsev. Avdeev took the article with him to Novokuznetsk (then - Stalinsk-Kuznetsky), but there he came to the attention of the state security organs. On December 5, a search was conducted on Avdeev, the authorship of Ivanov was found out, and information about the anti-Soviet agitator was reported to Moscow. January 31, 1959 Ivanov was arrested. Osipov 9 February 1959 spoke before the course, protesting against the activities of the KGB, after which he was expelled from the Komsomol and the university. 5 May 1959 city the court sentenced Avdeev to six years in prison, after which he was transferred to Mordovia. As for Ivanov, he was sent to the Leningrad special psychiatric hospital, since Ivanov had previously received a “white ticket” through a mental hospital. In August, the 1960 Ivanov was released, after which he again gathered a circle around him, which included Ivanov himself - this time under the nickname “New Year’s”, Osipov - “Skvortsov”, as well as Ivanov-Rakhmetov, Viktor Khaustov, Edward Kuznetsov (1939 .), student Vyacheslav Senchagov (born 1940), Yuri Galanskov (born 1939), poets Appolon Schucht, Anatoly Schukin, Victor Vishnyakov (pseudonym Kovshin). These people gathered at the monument to Mayakovsky, but gradually in the company there was a disengagement into “poets” and “politicians”. Poets preferred a purely artistic and literary, and politicians - social activities. Anarcho-syndicalism became the ideology of the “politicians” circle; activists obtained ideas about the essence of anarchist and left-socialist ideologies from the works of Georges Sorel, Karl Kautsky, Mikhail Bakunin and Asher Deleon. The gatherings of the circle began in the winter of 1960-1961, and, as a rule, they gathered at night. Often, anti-Soviet speeches were heard at meetings of the group, but mostly young people who came to meetings preferred to listen and discuss poems. 28th of June 1961 Osipov read out his program to create an anarcho-syndicalist militant organization. A single draft of the organization was read out to Ivanov, Kuznetsov, Khaustov, Senchagov and Anatoly Viktorov. After reading the program paper was immediately burned. Practically in the same days mass riots took place in Murom - 30 June 1961. and in Aleksandrov - 9 July 1961, as a result of which groups of marginal citizens stormed the buildings of city departments of internal affairs. After the events in Murom, it was decided to send Kuznetsov and Senchagov with familiarization purposes. Having traveled to Murom, they also learned about the events in Aleksandrov. Osipov, Kuznetsov and Khaustov went to Alexandrov to interview the eyewitnesses of the events and compose a leaflet. In October 1961 Osipov, Ivanov and Kuznetsov were again arrested - this time in the Bokstein case.
- Vladimir Osipov.
Distrust of the Soviet government, discontent with the existing order in the country permeated the entire Soviet society, and not just representatives of the young capital of the intelligentsia. During the period of the end of 50-x - the beginning of 60-s there are a huge number of spontaneous riots and riots, which resulted in the protest activity of the population of the country. The most famous are the performances on Temir-Tau, in Murom, Aleksandrov, Krasnodar, Biysk. These riots tended to start all of a sudden, at the most insignificant, at first glance, occasions to reach a certain climax, and then cease either as a result of the actions of the police and army units, or because of the pacification of the majority of participants. The main driving force behind the 50-X-60 spontaneous riots was the urban marginal strata, most disadvantaged by the Soviet system. Almost everywhere, rebellious marginalized people put forward the same slogans that exposed the Soviet system as the “power of the new bourgeois”.
Against the backdrop of all these events, among Soviet citizens, primarily among students and young representatives of the intelligentsia, people began to appear sympathizing with anarchism and even ready to propagate his ideas by disseminating literature and creating circles. They were greatly influenced by the echoes of mass youth performances taking place abroad, which in the 60s covered not only the USA and Western Europe, but also Japan, Latin America, Africa and even some socialist countries. As a result, the first circles and groups of left-wing radical orientation appeared in the Soviet Union. They existed, as a rule, in large urban centers, being in an illegal situation. The ideology of these groups, mainly youth in their composition, was, most often, not “orthodox” anarchism, but a kind of mixture of anarchism and Marxism, which corresponded to the spirit of the times - after all, the West European and American “new left” also combined elements of these two ideological directions.
Leningrad "new left" in the late 1970-x - early 1980-x
In 1970, the beginning of 1980, illegal left-radical groups were most active in Leningrad. In Leningrad, the control of state security bodies was weaker than in Moscow, but there were more educated and politically active young people here than in provincial cities. It was in Leningrad at the end of 1970 that two significant illegal groups emerged - the Left Opposition and the Union of Revolutionary Communards. The group, which in the domestic literature on the history of the dissident and left-wing radical movement is called the “Left Opposition”, emerged at the end of 1976. Its core was made up of former students of the 121 of the Physics and Mathematics School of Leningrad, Andrei Reznikov, Arkady Tsurkov and Alexander Skobov, Alexei Havin. The average age of the group members at the time of its creation did not exceed 20 years. About how the group was born, its former member Alexander Skobov says: “On December 14 on 1976, we came to Senate Square to see if there would be an attempt to repeat the dissident dispersed by the authorities a year ago on the anniversary of the Decembrist uprising. We talked. They turned out to be in many ways like-minded ... ” But the first "combat outing" of future comrades occurred even before that. 24 February 1976, on the opening day of the 25th CPSU Congress, from the gallery of Gostiny Dvor on Nevsky Prospect, four young people dropped 100 handwritten leaflets “Long live the new revolution! Long live communism! ” They were detained. After identification of the first-year students, Andrei Reznikov, Arkady Tsurkov, Alexander Skobov, and tenth-grader Alexander Fomenko were excluded from the Komsomol and from educational institutions. However, these measures not only did not stop the fervor of the young left, but even more convinced them of the "bourgeois rebirth" of the USSR and the need for a more radical struggle with the existing system. There was a design circle, called the first Leningrad school, and later - the Left Opposition.
The band members were influenced by youth speeches in the West. This, in many ways, determined their ideology. The group considered itself the successor of the West European "new left" and sought to popularize their ideas in the Soviet Union. The main principles on which the group stood were: 1) rejection of "Western" bourgeois values and faith in the triumph of communism; 2) recognition of the need for a revolutionary struggle to change the existing system in the USSR; 3) disbelief in the possibility of correcting the Soviet system in an evolutionary way. It is interesting that, like the Western “new left”, the participants of the “Left Opposition” sought not to share political convictions and everyday life. In the same year, 1976 members of the group organized a youth commune, removing half the house on the outskirts of Leningrad. There were discussions on political issues, visitors stopped.
In 1978, the Leningrad school adopted a new name - “Left Opposition”. In order to propagate their ideas, the group decided to launch the issue of its own organ - a magazine. The first issue of the magazine was unnamed, since the group members could not come to a consensus about the name. By the release of the second issue, everyone agreed on the choice of the name "Perspective". A typewritten magazine, Perspective, with a volume of 30-40 pages was published in copies of 10-12 and distributed among a circle of friends. The content of the first issue of the journal was purely theoretical; the second one, in addition to a selection of theoretical texts, contained eyewitness accounts of youth riots in Leningrad on July 4 of 1978.
Here it is necessary to tell in more detail about the events. 4 July 1978, the authorities have promised to hold on the Palace Square of Leningrad, in the open air, a concert of several Western rock bands. At the very last moment the concert was canceled, but the audience still managed to get together. Basically, those gathered were young fans of rock music - hippies and sympathizers. There was a spontaneous demonstration, which came out on the Nevsky, where it was dispersed by the police with the help of watering machines. This event was quite unusual for that time and caused joyful hopes among the Left Opposition participants for the closeness of the changes in the order that existed in the USSR. To establish a connection with the hippie youth, the stories of eyewitnesses of this speech were printed in “Perspective”.
Alexander Skobov (photo of our time)
The third issue was prepared as suggestive of bridges with the liberal-human rights opposition, but at the very last moment before the release of the magazine in October 1978, the group members were arrested by officers of the USSR State Security Committee Directorate for Leningrad and the Leningrad Region. Interrogations and searches have affected about 40 people - mainly representatives of the Leningrad "informal" youth. Three were arrested - a student of the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University Alexander Skobov, a student of the Physics Faculty of Leningrad State University Arkady Tsurkov and a student of the Medical Institute Alexei Havin. Two group ideologues, Alexander Skobov and Arkady Tsurkov, were charged under Article 70 of the Criminal Code of the USSR - anti-Soviet propaganda and agitation with the aim of undermining and weakening the existing system. Arkady Tsurkov was sentenced to 5 years of camps and exiled 2, Alexander Skobov was sent to a special psychiatric hospital after the trial. In the last word, Tsurkov declared that after the liberation he would continue the struggle, and to friends gathered near the court building he shouted “Long live the democratic movement!”.
However, after the arrest of the main participants of the group, the publication of the journal “Prospects” ceased and was no longer resumed. Irina Tsurkova, left at liberty, and later released from a mental hospital, Skobov joined the democratic Free Interprofessional Workers' Association (SMOT).
Almost at the same time with the Left Opposition, another anarcho-communist group, the Union of Revolutionary Communards, operated in Leningrad. Its participants, worker Vladimir Mikhailov, artist Alexei Stasevich and student Alevtina Kochneva, held close views to the “Left Opposition” and defined the Soviet system as state capitalism. The group considered themselves like-minded "new left" students who spoke in Paris in May 1968.
Like the Left Opposition, the Union of Revolutionary Communards organized a commune in a rented apartment. The daily activity of the group was to write on the walls of houses and Soviet institutions slogans “Down with state capitalism!” And “Democracy is not demagogy!” And distribution of leaflets explaining that all evil in the world comes from the existence of the state, family and private property. However, the band members were arrested and convicted in December 1979 under the article "hooliganism".
In other regions of the Soviet Union, the activity of pro-anarchist youth circles was at the end of the 1970s - the beginning of the 1980s. less noticeable. It is known that in Ukraine at the end of the 1970-s there were several anarchist agitators. Nikolai Ozimov, who considered himself an anarcho-mystic, had been imprisoned for 15 years. At Dnepropetrovsk State University in 1979, a group of students attempted to create a Communist Union of Anarchists. In this case, V. Strelkovsky was arrested, about which he discovered the fact that he was a member of an underground group that operated in the same university two years earlier - in 1977 year. In Belarus, anarchism sympathized with some of the hippies who staged an unimaginable event for those times in 1972 - an anti-army pacifist demonstration in the city of Grodno, which later became one of the centers of Belarusian anarchism of countercultural orientation.
"Community" and the creation of the anarcho-syndicalist movement of the end of the 1980-ies.
Since the beginning of perestroika, the situation has changed significantly. Having embarked on the democratization of society, the Soviet authorities were interested in creating the image of reformers and fighters against the totalitarian past. As a result of liberalization, a significant part of left radical radicals and, in particular, anarchist groups that survived the beginning of the restructuring, was able to legalize under the guise of various "clubs", "societies in support of restructuring", etc. The anti-state actors of the beginning of perestroika still, of course, did not dare to speak about themselves as anarchists and acted as “supporters of socialism with a human face”. Under this brand, they were able to act almost legally, without being subjected to strong persecution by the KGB. This, of course, does not mean that the repressions against the left-wing radicals in the USSR completely stopped (they did not completely stop in post-Soviet Russia), but unlike pre-perestroika times, they became the exception rather than the rule than the rule itself. The beginning of the legalization of left-radical groups refers to 1986, but their real splash occurred a year or two later. This process took place differently in the capital’s centers and in the provinces: in Moscow and Leningrad, it was certainly easier than in the provincial cities, to which the “wind of change” reached later and the local authorities kept the “Stalin hardening” for a long time.
One of the first examples of legalization of left-radical groups in the USSR was the emergence in 1986 of the Student Discussion Club at the history department of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute, under the sign of which the All-Union Revolutionary Marxist Party (VMPP), which was led by Vladimir Gulyaev, Dmitry Chegogodaev, was legalized and Andrei Isaev (in the future - the ideologue of anarcho-syndicalists). The aim of the All-Russian Union of Russian Artists was to conduct a new proletarian revolution in the Soviet Union, since the Soviet elite was accused by the leaders of the group of betraying the interests of the working class and of bourgeois degeneration. The proletarian revolution was supposed to save the Soviet Union from the inevitable restoration of capitalist relations.
However, by the time the Student Discussion Club was established on the basis of the VMPP, the ideologists of the group, primarily Isaev, had already moved to positions close to anarchism (anarcho-syndicalism). Initially, the Student Discussion Club was not openly a political organization. The main form of his activity was to hold discussions in student audiences about the advantages and disadvantages of various socialist studies. Lecturers from the club analyzed the positive and negative aspects of the considered ideological systems (most often they were Soviet socialism, the Yugoslav model, Maoism, Eurocommunism and anarcho-syndicalism) and then, together with the audience, came to the conclusion about the maximum advantage of any one socialist movement.
As the Student Discussion Club grew, the Historical and Political Club “Community” was created on its base in 1987, which was already frankly focused on the radical leftist ideology. Andrey Isaev and Alexander Shubin became recognized community ideologues. The “community” almost immediately joined the political struggle, its representatives began to regularly take part in all actions of the democratic opposition, including both seminars and conferences, as well as street rallies and demonstrations (in particular, 28 in May, 1988 “Community” together with the democratic group Civil dignity "held a demonstration in Moscow). In addition, the Community started the publication of a journal of the same name, which for some time remained the leading anarchist publication on the territory of the Soviet Union. Ideologically, “Community”, while still avoiding identifying itself with anarchists, declared itself as “communist socialists”. The political program of the Community included elements of both anarchism (first of all, the theoretical heritage of M.A. Bakunin) and modern liberalism.
In particular, together with a focus on stateless society in the form of self-governing federations of autonomous communities, Community declared its goals in the struggle for the introduction of private property and a market economy, for a multi-party political system, for the transfer of state-owned enterprises to labor collectives. , for the abolition of the death penalty and universal conscription. Under the conditions of a totalitarian system, which was still largely preserved in the USSR, such general democratic slogans put forward by the Community were designed for understanding by the broad masses of the population, tired of the state administrative system and welcoming the capitalist transformations that had begun. Thus, the ideology of “Community” was one of the variants of stateless “market socialism”, in which the influence of anarcho-syndicalist theories, Bakunism and Proudhonism was clearly noticeable. From the first months of its existence, "Community" began attempts to consolidate the disparate left-radical groups that existed in the territory of the Soviet Union. To this end, the leaders of the Community came into contact with representatives of other left-radical and left-democratic groups in order to unite them into a single organization. At the same time, certain contacts were established and with the modernist-minded part of the leaders of the Komsomol, at one time the “Community” even consulted with the Komsomol leaders on the democratization of the Komsomol. However, as early as July 1988, thanks to the efforts of the leaders of the Community, a single left-wing organization was still created - a number of groups, including Community, Forest People, Fifth of June (Ryazan), Perspective (Kuybyshev ) and “Salvation” (Leningrad), united in the Alliance of Socialist Federalists (ASF). Ideologically, the Alliance retained the “Community” orientation towards moderate anarchism, however, to talk about themselves as anarchists, the members of the ASF still avoided and called themselves “federalist socialists”. In its propaganda activities, the Alliance relied on the structures of the FSC, the remnants of which became the main organizational base of the new organization. Already in September 1988, the Federalist Socialist Alliance was renamed the Union of Independent Socialists (SNS), under which name 1989 existed until January, when the Confederation of Anarcho-Syndicalists (UAC) was established on its basis.
If in Moscow the revival of the anarchist movement took place mainly within the framework of the Community and the political organizations that grew out of it, then in Leningrad we see a slightly different picture. In 1988, a group of students, organized by Peter Raush, Pavel Geskin, I. Grigoriev and N. Neupokoeva, were organized in the history department of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. The February typewritten journal was launched (the name was paralleled with the February 1917 revolution) based on the promotion and presentation of anarchist ideas in an accessible form. In August, 1988 of the year, at the initiative of the group that published February, the first legal organization of the anarchist orientation, the Anarchist Syndicalist Free Association (ACCA), was created practically in Leningrad. The number of members of ACCA was 15 people. In the ideological sense, the ACCA took up the position of anarcho-individualism, also taking on certain elements of the neoliberal ideology and taking a place on the right flank of the anarchist movement. With its programmatic principles, the ACCA proclaimed the introduction of private property and a market economy, anti-totalitarianism, the transfer of enterprises to the ownership of workers, the abolition of compulsory secondary education, complete freedom of opinion and political associations (multi-party system). ACCA declared its orientation towards non-violent forms of struggle, which meant propaganda and research, the organization of strikes, participation in mass protests, a campaign of civil disobedience. Violence was considered adequate only in cases of self-defense. Almost immediately, ACCA acted as a united front with other Leningrad opposition forces. The “right” positions that distinguished the early ACCA later became characteristic of St. Petersburg anarchists, so that, up to the present, St. Petersburg anarchists traditionally occupy the “right” flank of the Russian anarchist movement.
As mentioned above, in 1987-1988's. the revival of the anarchist movement on the territory of the Soviet Union took place not only in the capitals, but also in the provinces. Irkutsk has become one of the organizational and ideological centers of resurgent anarchism in Siberia and the Far East. Circles that propagated the ideas of anarchism appeared in this city before perestroika. At the beginning of the 1980's In the Irkutsk State University existed so-called. “Federation of Irkutsk Communist Anarchists”, which was inspired by university student Igor Podshivalov (pictured). Later, in 1983, Podshivalov together with Mikhail Dronov and Igor Perevalov created the New Communists group, also focused on anarchism. The “New Communists” published the almanac “The Candle”, in which, in addition to the literary works of the members of the circle, articles on the history and theory of anarchism were published. The activity of the group attracted the attention of the authorities and in 1984, Podshivalov was expelled from the fifth year of university (with the wording “for propaganda of anarchism ideas”), other members of the circle got off with less significant penalties. Nevertheless, the activity of anarchists in Irkutsk continued.
4 July 1988. Irkutsk opposition forces united into a Socialist club. The number of Sotsklub soon exceeded 80 people, and most of its activists were not so much anarchists, as the representatives of other political movements, especially the Social Democrats. As I.Podshivalov notes, practically all Irkutsk political movements of the perestroika period — Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, Cadets, and Anarcho-Syndicalists — left the Socialist Club. All of them at that time were united under the name “informals” and did not make any particular differences between them. In fact, the line of the Socialist Club was determined by the anarchists who controlled the publication of the organ of the association - the Sman Candle almanac, which was distributed in 12 copies, but despite the small circulation, was very popular among the Irkutsk opposition. Despite the fact that the Social Club included representatives of various opposition movements, a unified program was developed, for which, like other documents of the Soviet anarchists of that time, was characterized by a combination of anarchism with liberalism, the principle of a stateless society with the requirements of introducing a multi-party system property and market economy.
In the interval between the second half of the 1930's. and the beginning of the 1950's. the anarchist movement in the Soviet Union did not actually exist. If the anarchist movement of the USSR at the first stage of its existence, in the middle of 1920-x - the beginning of 1930-x, was characterized by a large number and high activity, while maintaining continuity with respect to the pre-revolutionary Russian anarchist movement and close ties with the foreign anarchist community, in the period from the middle of the 1950-x to the beginning of the 1980-x. The anarchist groups of the Soviet Union were characterized by the following features:
1. Fragmentation Groups arose and acted independently of each other, most often unaware of the existence of each other.
2. Isolation from the masses, the almost complete lack of support among the working class.
3. Isolation from like-minded foreigners, due to the “iron curtain”, which made it impossible for the anarchists of the USSR to become familiar with the modern trends of left-wing radical thought that they had, with the experience of foreign left-wing radicals.
4. Paucity The groups that acted in 1950 - 1980 - s never went beyond the circles of several people united around one or two or three of the brightest leaders.
5. Lack of continuity. The groups that emerged after World War II practically did not know (and could not know, due to the closed archives) about the activities of their immediate predecessors, were deprived of the opportunity to study the literature and experience of the pre-revolutionary anarchist movement.
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