“Top secret: water plus oxygen ...” Part II. In the air, under water and in space
However, the Kriegsmarine was not the only organization that paid attention to the Helmut Walter turbine. She was closely interested in the department of Hermann Goering. As in any other storiesand this one had its beginning. And it is connected with the name of an aircraft designer Alexander Lippish, an employee of the Messerschmitt company, who is an ardent supporter of unusual aircraft structures. Not inclined to accept the generally accepted decisions and opinions on faith, he set about creating a fundamentally new aircraft in which he saw everything in a new way. According to his concept, the aircraft should be light, have as few mechanisms and auxiliary units as possible, have a form that is rational from the point of view of creating a lifting force and the most powerful engine.
The traditional Lippish piston engine did not suit, and he turned his attention to the jet, more precisely - to the rocket. But also all the supply systems with their bulky and heavy pumps, tanks, ignition systems and adjustments known by that time also did not suit him. Thus, the idea of using self-igniting fuel crystallized out. Then only fuel and oxidizer can be placed on board, and a maximally simple two-component pump and combustion chamber with a jet nozzle can be created.
In this matter, Lippish was lucky. And lucky twice. First, such an engine already existed - that is the turbine of Walter. Secondly, the first flight with this engine was already made in the summer of 1939 of the year on a non-176 plane. Despite the fact that the results, to put it mildly, were not impressive - the maximum speed that this aircraft reached after 50 seconds of engine operation was only 345 km / h - the Luftwaffe management considered this direction to be quite promising. They saw the reason for the low speed in the traditional layout of the aircraft and decided to test their assumptions on the tailless Lippish. So Messerschmitt innovator got his own glider DFS-40 and engine RI-203.
To power the engine used (all very secret!) Two-component fuel consisting of T-stoff and C-stoff. The same hydrogen peroxide and fuel hid behind the tricky codes: a mixture of 30% hydrazine, 57% methanol and 13% water. The catalyst solution was called Z-stoff. Despite the presence of three solutions, the fuel was considered two-component: for some reason, the catalyst solution was not considered a component.
Soon the tale is affected, but it is not done soon. This Russian proverb perfectly describes the history of the creation of a rocket fighter-interceptor. The layout, the development of new engines, the flashing, the training of pilots - all this delayed the process of creating a full-fledged car to 1943 year. As a result, the combat version of the aircraft - Me-163В - was a completely independent machine, inheriting from its predecessors only the basic layout. The small size of the airframe did not leave the designers no place on the retractable landing gear, nor on any spacious cab.
All space was occupied by fuel tanks and the rocket engine itself. And with him, too, everything was "not thank God." Helmut Walter Fanke calculated that the planned for the Me-163В rocket engine RII-211 will have thrust 1700 kg, and fuel consumption T at full thrust will be somewhere 3 kg per second. At the time of these calculations, the RII-211 engine existed only as a mockup. Three consecutive runs on the ground were unsuccessful. The engine was more or less able to bring to flight status only in the summer of the 1943 of the year, but even then it was still considered experimental. And the experiments again showed that the theory and practice often disagree with each other: the fuel consumption was significantly higher than the calculated one - 5 kg / s at maximum thrust. So Me-163B had a fuel supply for only six minutes of flight at full engine thrust. However, his life was 2 hours of work, which on average gave about 20 - 30 departures. The incredible gluttony of the turbine completely changed the tactics of using these fighters: takeoff, climb, approach, one attack, exit from attack, return home (often in airframe mode, as there was no fuel left for the flight). It was simply not necessary to talk about air battles, the whole calculation was on swiftness and superiority in speed. Confidence in the success of the attack added and solid weapons "Comet": two 30-mm guns, plus an armored pilot cabin.
At least these two dates can tell about the problems that accompanied the creation of an aviation version of the Walter engine: the first flight of an experimental model took place in the 1941 year; Me-163 was adopted in 1944. The distance, as one well-known Griboedov character said, is of enormous scale. And this is despite the fact that the designers and developers did not spit at the ceiling.
At the end of 1944, the Germans made an attempt to improve the aircraft. In order to increase the duration of the flight, the engine was equipped with an auxiliary combustion chamber for cruising with a reduced thrust, increased fuel capacity, instead of a detachable bogie, a conventional wheeled chassis was installed. Until the end of the war, it was possible to build and test only one sample, which was designated Me-263.
Toothless "Viper"
The powerlessness of the “thousand-year-old Reich” before air attacks made it necessary to search for any, sometimes the most incredible, ways to counteract the Allied carpet bombing. The author’s task is not to analyze all the wonders with the help of which Hitler hoped to perform a miracle and save, if not Germany, then himself from inevitable death. I’ll dwell only on one “invention” - the vertical take-off interceptor Ba-349 “Natter” (“Viper”). This miracle of hostile technology was created as a cheap alternative to the Me-163 "Comet" with an emphasis on mass production and baldness of materials. For its manufacture it was planned to use the most affordable types of wood and metal.
In this brainchild of Erich Bahema everything was known and everything was unusual. Takeoff was planned to carry out vertically, like a rocket, with the help of four powder accelerators installed on the sides of the rear fuselage. At an altitude of 150 m, the spent missiles were dropped and the flight continued due to the operation of the main engine - the LRE Walter 109-509А - a sort of prototype of two-stage rockets (or rockets with solid-fuel boosters). Guidance on the target was carried out first with a gun on the radio, and then by the pilot manually. Not less unusual was the armament: approaching the target, the pilot fired a volley of twenty-four 73-mm missiles installed under the fairing in the nose of the aircraft. Then he had to separate the front of the fuselage and parachute to the ground. The engine also had to be parachuted so that it could be reused. If desired, this can be seen in the prototype of the "Shuttle" - a modular aircraft with independent return home.
Usually in this place they say that this project was ahead of the technical capabilities of German industry, which explains the catastrophe of the first instance. But, in spite of such a deafening result in the literal sense of the word, the construction of another 36 "Nutters" was completed, of which 25 were tested, and only 7 in a manned flight. In April, 10 A-Series Natters (and who was counting on the next?) Were deployed at Kircheim near Stuttgart to repel the raids of American bombers. But they did not give Bachem the brainchild to join the battle Tanks the allies whom they had waited before the bombers. The Natters and their launchers were destroyed by their own calculations [14]. So, argue after that with the opinion that the best air defense is our tanks at their airfields.
Nevertheless, the appeal of the LRE was enormous. So huge that the license to manufacture a rocket fighter was bought by Japan. Her problems with aviation The United States was akin to the German, and therefore it is not surprising that they turned to the Allies for a solution. Two submarines with technical documentation and equipment samples were sent to the shores of the empire, but one of them was sunk during the transition. The Japanese themselves restored the missing information and Mitsubishi built a prototype J8M1. In the first flight on July 7, 1945, it crashed due to engine failure during climb, after which the topic died safely and quietly.
So that the reader does not have the opinion that instead of the desired fruit, hydrogen peroxide brought only disappointment to its apologists, I will give an example of, obviously, the only case where there was a sense from it. And it was obtained precisely when the designer did not try to squeeze the last drop of possibilities out of it. This is a modest, but necessary detail: a turbopump assembly for supplying fuel components in the A-4 (V-2) rocket. It was impossible to supply fuel (liquid oxygen and alcohol) by creating overpressure in tanks for a rocket of this class, but a small and light gas turbine on hydrogen peroxide and permanganate created enough gas to rotate the centrifugal pump.
Schematic diagram of the engine rocket "V-2" 1 - tank with hydrogen peroxide; 2 - tank with sodium permanganate (a catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide); 3 - compressed air cylinders; 4 - steam and gas generator; 5 - turbine; 6 - exhaust pipe of the exhaust gas; 7 - fuel pump; 8 - oxidizer pump; 9 - gearbox; 10 - oxygen supply lines; 11 - combustion chamber; 12 - prechamber
The turbopump assembly, a steam and gas generator for the turbine, and two small tanks for hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate were placed in the same compartment with the propulsion system. Spent steam gas, after passing through the turbine, still remained hot and could do more work. Therefore, he was sent to a heat exchanger, where he heated a certain amount of liquid oxygen. Receiving back into the tank, this oxygen created a small boost there, which somewhat facilitated the operation of the turbopump assembly and at the same time prevented the flattening of the tank walls when it became empty.
The use of hydrogen peroxide was not the only possible solution: it was possible to use the main components, feeding them into the gas generator in a ratio that was far from optimal, and thereby reducing the temperature of the combustion products. But in this case it would be necessary to solve a number of complex problems associated with ensuring reliable ignition and maintaining a stable combustion of these components. The use of hydrogen peroxide in medium concentration (there was no need for extreme power here) made it possible to solve the problem simply and quickly. So compact and obscure mechanism forced the deadly heart of the rocket to beat, filled with a ton of explosives.
Blow from the depths
The title of the book of Z. Pearl, as the author thinks, fits the title of this chapter as well as possible. Without striving for a claim to the ultimate truth, I still allow myself to assert that there is nothing more terrible than a sudden and almost inevitable blow to the side of two or three quintals of TNT, from which bulkheads burst, steel crinkles and many-toned mechanisms fly off the anchorages. The roar and whistle of the burning steam become a requiem to the ship, which in convulsions and convulsions goes under water, taking with it to the realm of Neptune those unfortunates who did not have time to jump into the water and sail away from the sinking ship. A quiet and inconspicuous, similar to the treacherous shark, the submarine slowly dissolved into the depths of the sea, carrying in its steel womb ten more such deadly gifts.
The idea of a self-propelled mine, capable of combining the speed of a ship and the gigantic explosive power of an anchor "flyer", appeared quite a long time ago. But in the metal it was realized only when there appeared rather compact and powerful engines, which informed her of great speed. A torpedo is not a submarine, but its engine also needs fuel and an oxidizer ...
Torpedo Killer ...
That is what the legendary 65-76 "Kit" is called after the tragic events of August 2000. The official version says that the spontaneous explosion of the “thick torpedo” caused the death of the Kursk submarine K-141. At first glance, the version at least deserves attention: the 65-76 torpedo is not a child’s rattle at all. It's dangerous weapon, handling of which requires special skills.
One of the "weak points" of the torpedo was its propeller - an impressive range of fire was achieved using a propeller for hydrogen peroxide. And this means the presence of the whole already familiar bouquet of charms: gigantic pressures, violently reacting components and the potential possibility of an involuntary reaction of an explosive nature. As an argument, supporters of the version of the explosion of the "thick torpedo" lead to the fact that all the "civilized" countries of the world [9] refused to take torpedoes for hydrogen peroxide.
The author will not go into a dispute regarding the causes of the tragic death of the Kursk, and, after a minute of silence honoring the memory of the dead North Seamen, will pay attention to the source of torpedo energy.
Traditionally, the oxidizer reserve for a torpedo engine was an air cylinder, the amount of which was determined by the unit's power and range. The disadvantage is obvious: the ballast weight of a thick-walled balloon that could be turned into something more useful. To store air pressure up to 200 kgf / cm² (196 • GPA), thick-walled steel tanks are required, the mass of which exceeds the mass of all energy components 2,5 - 3 times. The latter account for only about 12 - 15% of the total mass. For the operation of the ESA, a large amount of fresh water is needed (22 - 26% by weight of energy components), which limits the reserves of fuel and oxidizer. In addition, compressed air (21% oxygen) is not the most efficient oxidant. Nitrogen present in the air is also not just ballast: it is very poorly soluble in water and therefore creates a well-marked bubble trace behind the torpedo with a width of 1 - 2 m [11]. However, these torpedoes had not less obvious advantages, which were a continuation of the shortcomings, the most important of which was high safety. Torpedoes working on pure oxygen (liquid or gaseous) turned out to be more effective. They significantly reduced the consequence, increased the efficiency of the oxidizer, but did not solve the problems with weight distribution (balloon and cryogenic equipment still made up a significant part of the weight of the torpedo).
Hydrogen peroxide in this case was a kind of antipode: with much higher energy characteristics, it was also a source of increased danger. When replacing compressed air in an air thermal torpedo with an equivalent amount of hydrogen peroxide, its range was increased by a factor of 3. The table below shows the efficiency of the use of various types of used and promising energy carriers in a torpedoes [11] ESA:
In a torpedo ESA, everything happens in the traditional way: the peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen, oxygen oxidizes fuel (kerosene), the resulting vapor-gas rotates the turbine shaft - and now the deadly cargo rushes to the board of the ship.
Torpedo 65-76 "Kit" is the latest Soviet development of this type, which began in 1947 in the study of the German torpedo not brought to the mind at the Lomonosov branch of Scientific Research Institute-400 (later - Scientific Research Institute "Morteplotehnika") under the leadership of Chief Designer D.A. . Kokryakova.
The work ended with the creation of a prototype, which was tested in Feodosia in 1954-55. During this time, Soviet designers and materials scientists had to develop mechanisms unknown to them until that time, to understand the principles and thermodynamics of their work, to adapt them for compact use in the body of a torpedo (one of the designers once said that, by complexity, torpedoes and space rockets are approaching the clock ). The engine used was a high-speed open-type turbine of its own design. This unit spoiled a lot of blood to its creators: problems with burnout of the combustion chamber, material search for a peroxide storage tank, development of a fuel supply regulator (kerosene, low-water hydrogen peroxide (85% concentration), sea water) - all this dragged the tests and bring the torpedoes to 1957. This year the fleet received the first torpedo for hydrogen peroxide 53-57 (according to some information, it had the name "Alligator", but perhaps it was the name of the project).
In 1962, an anti-ship self-guided torpedo was adopted. 53-61based on 53-57, and 53-61М with an improved homing system.
The developers of torpedoes paid attention not only to their e-stuffing, but did not forget about her heart. And it was, as we remember, quite capricious. To improve the stability of work with increasing power, a new turbine with two combustion chambers was developed. Along with the new homing filling, she received the 53-65 index. Another modernization of the engine with increasing its reliability gave a start in life modification 53-65М.
The beginning of the 70-ies was marked by the development of compact nuclear weapons, which could be installed in a torpedo warhead. For such a torpedo, the symbiosis of powerful explosives and a high-speed turbine was quite obvious, and an uncontrollable peroxide torpedo was adopted in 1973. 65-73 with a nuclear warhead, designed to destroy large surface ships, its groups and coastal targets. However, the sailors were not only interested in such goals (and most likely they were not at all), and three years later she received an acoustic guidance system on the wake, an electromagnetic fuse and the 65-76 index. The CU has also become more universal: it could be both nuclear and carry 500 kg of normal TNT.
And now the author would like to give a few words to the thesis about the "begging" of countries that are armed with torpedoes for hydrogen peroxide. First, in addition to the USSR / Russia, they are in service with some other countries, for example, the Swedish heavy torpedo Tr1984 developed in 613, working on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ethanol, is still in service with the Swedish and Norwegian Navy. The lead in the FFV Tr61 series, the TrpNXX torpedo entered service at 61 as a heavy torpedo-controlled torpedo for use by surface ships, submarines and coastal batteries [1967]. The main power plant uses hydrogen peroxide with ethanol, which drives the 12-cylinder steam engine, providing the torpedo with almost complete trace. Compared with modern electric torpedoes at a similar speed, the range is obtained in 12 - 3 is more times. In 5, the more long-range Tr1984 entered service, replacing the Tr613.
But the Scandinavians were not alone in this field. Prospects for the use of hydrogen peroxide in military affairs were taken into account by the naval fleet USA before 1933, and before the US entered the war at the Newport Naval Torpedo Station, strictly classified work on torpedoes was carried out in which hydrogen peroxide was to be used as an oxidizing agent. In the engine, a 50% hydrogen peroxide solution decomposes under pressure with an aqueous solution of permanganate or another oxidizing agent, and the decomposition products are used to maintain the combustion of alcohol - as we see, the scheme has already become boring during the story. The engine was significantly improved during the war, but torpedoes powered by hydrogen peroxide did not find military use in the US Navy until the end of hostilities.
So not only "poor countries" considered peroxide as an oxidizing agent for torpedoes. Even quite respectable United States paid tribute to such a rather attractive substance. The reason for abandoning the use of these ESAs, as the author sees it, lay not in the cost of developing ESAs on oxygen (in the USSR such torpedoes, which proved to be very well in various conditions), were used for quite a long time and all the same aggressiveness, danger and instability hydrogen peroxide: no stabilizers guarantee one hundred percent guarantee of the absence of decomposition processes. How can this end, tell, I think, do not ...
... and a suicide torpedo
I think that such a name is more than justified for the notorious and widely known guided torpedo "Kaiten". Despite the fact that the leadership of the Imperial Fleet demanded that the evacuation hatch be added to the “man-torpedo” design, the pilots did not use them. It was not only a samurai spirit, but also an understanding of a simple fact: it is impossible to survive a one-and-a-half-ton ammunition explosion in the water, being at a distance of 40-50 meters.
The first model of the "Kaiten" "Type-1" was created on the basis of the 610-mm oxygen torpedo "Type 93" and was essentially just its enlarged and habitable version, occupying a niche between the torpedo and the mini-submarine. The maximum travel range at a speed of 30 knots was about 23 km (at a speed of 36 knots under favorable conditions, it could go up to 40 km). Created at the end of 1942 of the year, it was then not adopted by the fleet of the Land of the Rising Sun.
But by the beginning of 1944, the situation had changed significantly and the design of the weapon, which could implement the principle “every torpedo - into goal”, was removed from the shelf, where it had been collecting dust for almost a year and a half. It is difficult to say what made the admirals change their attitude: whether the letter of designers Lieutenant Nisim Sekio and Senior Lieutenant Kuroki Hiroshi, written in his own blood (the code of honor required an immediate reading of such a letter and providing a reasoned answer), is a catastrophic situation in the naval theater. After minor improvements, the “Kaiten type 1” in March 1944 of the year went into series.
The man-torpedo "Kaiten": a general view and device.
But in April, 1944, work began on its improvement. And it was not about modifying the existing development, but about creating a completely new development from scratch. The tactical and technical assignment issued by the fleet to the new “Kaiten Type 2” included a maximum speed of at least 50 nodes, a range of 50km, and a depth of 270 [15]. Work on the design of this "man-torpedoes" were assigned to the company "Nagasaki-Heiki K. K.", part of the concern "Mitsubishi".
The choice was not accidental: as mentioned above, it was this company that was actively working on various rocket systems based on hydrogen peroxide on the basis of information received from German colleagues. The result of their work was the "engine number 6", working on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine horsepower 1500.
By December 1944, two prototypes of the new "man-torpedo" were ready for testing. The tests were carried out on the ground stand, but the characteristics shown neither by the developer nor the customer were satisfied. The customer decided not to even begin the sea tests. As a result, the second "Kaiten" remained in the amount of two pieces [15]. Further modifications were developed under the oxygen engine - the military understood that even such amount of hydrogen peroxide could not be produced by the industry.
It is difficult to judge the effectiveness of this weapon: the Japanese propaganda of the times of the war attributed the death of a large American ship to almost every case of the use of the “Kaiten” (after the war, conversations on this topic subsided for obvious reasons). Americans, on the contrary, are ready to swear on anything, that their losses were meager. I would not be surprised if in ten years they in general will deny those in principle.
Starry hour
The work of German designers in the design of a turbopump unit for the V-2 rocket did not go unnoticed. All the German developments in the field of rocket armament we have received have been thoroughly investigated and tested for use in domestic designs. As a result of these works, turbopump units working on the same principle as the German prototype [16] appeared. The American rocket engineers, naturally, also applied this decision.
The British, who practically lost their entire empire during the Second World War, tried to cling to the remnants of their former greatness, using the trophy legacy to the fullest extent. Having practically no experience in the field of rocket technology, they focused on what they had. As a result, they managed almost the impossible: the Black Arrow rocket, which used a pair of kerosene — hydrogen peroxide and porous silver — provided Britain with a place among the space powers [17] as a catalyst. Alas, the continuation of the space program for the rapidly decreasing British Empire turned out to be an extremely expensive exercise.
Compact and fairly powerful peroxide turbines were used not only to supply fuel to the combustion chambers. It was used by the Americans to orient the descent module of the Mercury spacecraft, and then, for the same purpose, by the Soviet designers at the Soyuz spacecraft.
In terms of its energy characteristics, peroxide as an oxidizing agent is inferior to liquid oxygen, but is superior to nitric acid oxidants. In recent years, interest has been revived in the use of concentrated hydrogen peroxide as rocket fuel for engines of various scales. According to experts, peroxide is most attractive when used in new developments, where previous technologies cannot compete directly. Such developments are just satellites with a mass of 5-50 kg [18]. True, skeptics still believe that its prospects are still hazy. So, although the Soviet LRE RD-502 (fuel pair - peroxide plus pentaborane) showed a specific impulse 3680 m / s, it remained experimental [19].
“My name is Bond. James Bond"
I think there are hardly any people who have not heard this phrase. Slightly fewer lovers of “spy passions” will be able to name without a hitch all the performers of the role of the super agent Intelligence Service in chronological order. And absolutely fans will remember this not quite usual gadget. And at the same time, in this area there was not an interesting coincidence with which our world is so rich. Wendell Moore, an engineer at Bell Aerosystems and a namesake of one of the most famous performers of this role, became the inventor of one of the exotic means of transportation of this eternal character - a flying (or rather, jumping) backpack.
Structurally, this device is as simple as fantastic. The basis was made up of three cylinders: one with compressed to 40 atm. nitrogen (shown in yellow) and two with hydrogen peroxide (blue). The pilot turns the control knob and the control valve (3) opens. Compressed nitrogen (1) displaces liquid hydrogen peroxide (2), which enters the gas generator (4) through tubes. There it comes into contact with the catalyst (thin silver plates coated with a layer of samarium nitrate) and decomposes. The resulting gas-vapor mixture of high pressure and temperature enters the two pipes leaving the gas generator (the pipes are covered with a heat insulator to reduce heat loss). Then the hot gases enter the rotating jet nozzles (Laval nozzle), where they are first accelerated and then expanded, acquiring supersonic speed and creating jet thrust.
Traction controllers and handwheel nozzle control mounted in a box, mounted on the pilot's chest and connected to the units by means of cables. If it was necessary to turn to the side, the pilot turned one of the handwheels, deflecting one nozzle. In order to fly forward or backward, the pilot rotated both handwheels simultaneously.
So it looked in theory. But in practice, as often happened in the biography of hydrogen peroxide, everything did not turn out quite so. Or rather, not at all: the satchel was never able to make a normal independent flight. The maximum flight time of the rocket pack was 21 second, the range of 120 meters. At the same time the knapsack was accompanied by a whole team of attendants. For one twenty-second flight was consumed up to 20 liters of hydrogen peroxide. According to the military, the Bell Rocket Belt was a spectacular toy rather than an efficient vehicle. Army expenses under the contract with Bell Aerosystems amounted to 150 000 dollars, Bell also spent 50 000 dollars. The military refused the further financing of the program, the contract was completed.
And yet, he still managed to fight with the “enemies of freedom and democracy”, but not in the hands of “Uncle Sam's sons”, but behind the cinema-extra-super-intelligence officer. But what will be his fate, the author will not make assumptions: ungrateful this business - to predict the future ...
Perhaps, in this place of the story about the military career of this ordinary and unusual substance you can put an end. She was like a fairy tale: and not long, and not short; and successful, and failure; both promising and unpromising. They predicted a great future, tried to use it in many energy-generating installations, were disappointed and returned again. In general, everything is like in life ...
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