War of extermination: the conquest of the Saxons
Charlemagne is the ruler of the Middle Ages, who actually created the prototype of the modern European Union - the “Empire of the West”. During his reign, more than 50 military campaigns were committed, half of which he himself led. It can be argued that it was during the reign of Charles that the “Onslaught to the East” process (German Drang nach Osten), the hostile onslaught of the West and Catholicism (of Rome) against Slavs and other free peoples of Eastern Europe, began. What we are currently seeing in Ukraine is a continuation of the geopolitical process that was initiated during the reign of Charles. The “Battle for Ukraine” is a continuation of the confrontation between the owners of the Western project and the Slavic (Russian) world, which has been going on for more than a thousand years.As a result of the wars of conquest, Charlemagne was able to create a huge empire that stretched from the Slavic lands of Central Europe to Spain. It included the lands of modern France, Belgium, Holland, Italy and West Germany. True, the “Empire of the West” did not last long, and after the death of Charles, his sons would divide it into three parts. The crushing continued further. However, the vector of development of Europe was set - it is the union, the struggle with the Slavic civilization and the absorption of its lands, and the destruction of a foreign culture, faith (often with its carriers).
Almost simultaneously with the conquest of Italy (Emperor of the West Charlemagne) Charlemagne waged war with the Saxon tribes. It was the longest and fierce war in his reign. Intermittently, stopping and resuming again, it lasted for more than thirty years - from 772 to 804. Karl was able to defeat, using the strategy of "divide and rule", using the internal conflicts of the Saxons and attracting their opponents to the Slavs, who attacked from the east, as well as by bloody terror, exterminating and burning down entire villages and regions. A large role in the conquest of the people played Christianization.
Saxons
Saxon tribes inhabited a vast area between the Rhine in its lower reaches and Laba (Elbe). The territory covered with forests, covered with rivers and swamps, the lack of roads made their land difficult to reach for the enemy. Part of the Saxons back in the period from III to V century AD. e., along with the Angles and Jutes, moved to the southern part of the island of Britain. Where they, along with the Angles, became the politically and linguistically dominant community in England (the Anglo-Saxon community).
The self-name of the Saxons is unknown, apparently, it was different. The ancient authors who first used this word, denoting the tribes inhabiting the Rhine region, produced it from the name of their main combat weapons - knife sax. Sax or scramasax (Latin sax, scramasax), in fact, was a short sword, with a blade from 30 cm to half a meter. Skramasaks were widespread in Europe, including Russia.
Saxons did not yet have a state, a unified government. All important issues were resolved at the annual meeting of tribal elders (ting). Current issues were resolved with the help of tribal statutes (laws). The clan system was at the stage of decomposition and three social groups were clearly distinguished. The top of society consisted of "noble" (Adelieing) - ancestral nobility. Most of the population were free community members (freelings). In addition, there were dependent people (litas).
The Saxons were divided into four tribal unions. In the west, between the Rhine and the Weser (before its mouth), there lived "Western people" (Westphals). The West Saxons were the nearest neighbors of the Franks. In the center of the country, encompassing the Weser Basin and the Harz Mountains, Angra (Angrarians or Engerns) lived. In their lands on the Weser was Marklo, the place of annual meetings. To the east of the Angers, up to Laba, the lands of the "Eastern people" (Ostfalov) stretched. The northern part of Saxony, from the mouth of the Elbe-Laba to the Aider, was occupied by the Nording, the Northern Saxons.
The outbreak of war
The border of France and Saxony almost everywhere ran along the plain, and not along the rivers and was uncertain. This contributed to mutual raids and territorial disputes. Daily attacks, looting and arson occurred here. Karl's predecessor tried to capture the border areas of Saxony more than once. But all their attempts were not successful. Success was limited to the temporary imposition of tribute and an oath of loyalty from the frontier leaders. Soon, however, the Saxons in the subordinate border areas raised uprisings and threw power to the conquerors.
Karl put the war against the Saxons on a regular basis, methodically and gradually capturing Saxony. The reason for the war was the usual Saxon raid. Diet in Worms decided to start a war against its neighbors. The first time Charles army entered the Saxon lands in 772 year. From that moment until 804, with brief respite, there was a stubborn and bloody war. Almost every year, Frankish troops raked the Saxon forests and marshes, destroyed settlements and pagan sanctuaries, and took numerous hostages. They built fortresses and outposts, strengthening themselves on the land that had been seized. Saxon warriors (almost the entire population of the region) could not stand up to the Frankish army, put on a regular basis and better armed, but were quite successful irregular ("partisan") war. As soon as Karl or his commanders left the region with most of the army, all past successes were reduced to nothing, and it was necessary to start all over again. The Saxons attacked individual garrisons, destroyed enemy outposts, attacked Frankish detachments on forest "roads" (rather trails), organized ambushes and traps. They destroyed Christian missionaries and burned churches, which were an important component of the occupation regime. In this fight, the Saxons showed great intransigence and strength of mind.
At first, nothing foretold that the war would last more than three decades. The first campaign of Charles in Saxony was common for the wars of that era and resembled the invasion of Pepin the Short in 758. The Frankish army quite easily penetrated Saxony. The Saxons courageously resisted and defended themselves in their fortifications, but were defeated. The Frankish army destroyed their fortress of Eresburg, where the sanctuary of the god Irmina was destroyed (the researchers believe that this is one of the names of the god of Thunder). In honor of this god, a wooden pillar (irminsul), depicting the World Tree - Ash Yggdrasil, was erected.
And further, what was in the spirit of the traditional border war, events developed according to the old scheme. A year later, the Saxons, as in the previous period, responded to the invasion of the Franks with their raid. Karl, busy with the Lombards war in Italy, was able to send only a small punitive detachment. Only in 775 was a new big hike to Saxony organized. At the head of a large army, King Charles plunged into the land of the Saxons more than usual, reaching the possessions of the "eastern people" and the river Okker (Oker). As usual, hostages were taken. On the way back, the Ingres were defeated, who tried to attack the separate Frankish detachment left of Weser. However, this time before leaving the army from Saxony, Karl left strong garrisons in the fortresses of Ehresburg and Siguyburg.
In the spring of 776, the Saxons besieged both fortresses. Eresburg was repulsed. After that, Karl decided to change tactics. Apparently, leaving the question of complete conquest of Saxony for a more remote period - the conquest of Italy was not yet complete, Karl decided to create a fortified area - the border "mark". "Stamps" were created on the most dangerous areas, they should be a kind of buffer in the path of the enemy. Thus, during the reign of Charlemagne, the following were created: The Spanish Mark - for protection against Arabs in northern Spain; The Breton Mark is a county in the northwest of the kingdom, created to defend against the Bretons; Avar mark - an area in the southeast of the Frankish state, created to protect against avar raids; The Thuringian mark - in the east, for protection from sorbs (Pudznik Serbs), etc.
Eresburg Franks repulsed. Eresburg and Siguyburg were even better fortified. A new fortress of Karlsburg was built. In addition, Karl intensified the process of Christianization of Saxony. Apparently, Karl and his advisers, it became clear that to defeat the Saxons and to pacify Saxony, it is necessary to convert the population of the area to Christianity. Priests and the church were an important part of the system of control over people. Karl left the priests in the border areas to convert the pagans to the Christian religion. Initially, it went well. In 777, the Saxons were again defeated, most of the Saxon "noble" at the meeting in Paderborn recognized Charles as their master. The local population began to express the masses submission and baptism.
Transition to the strategy of complete conquest
King Carl celebrated victory. The border has been strengthened. Rebellious Saxons "resigned." Christianization has begun successfully. And here for the first time the name of the person who led the resistance appeared, rallied recalcitrant Saxons and breathed hope into those who had already accepted it. His name was Vidukind. He did not appear in Paderborn to take the oath of allegiance to Karl and left for the Danish king. Those who were ready to continue the resistance united around him.
Already in 778, the hopes of Karl and his court for a quick victory were broken. Returning from Spain, where Karl failed at 778 near Zaragoza and lost the rearguard under the command of the valiant Roland at Ronneval, the Frankish king received depressing news. The West Saxons (Westphals) rebelled again. The Saxons crossed the border at the Rhine and moved up the right bank of this river to Koblenz, burning everything in their path. And then, loaded with rich loot, they returned almost calmly to their lands. The Frankish detachment was able to catch up with the Saxons from Leisa, but managed only to pat the rearguard. In 779, Karl began a new campaign. The army of the Franks rather calmly passed the whole country, without meeting any special resistance anywhere. The Saxons again resigned, gave hostages and oaths of loyalty.
However, Karl no longer believed them. Apparently, from this point on, Karl decided that Saxony should be taken up closely. The Franks began to embody a strategic plan that led to the complete subordination of Saxony. Karl was now preparing very carefully for new campaigns and they began to resemble a "total war", and not the old knightly "dagger strikes". The 780 campaign of the year was not caused at all by a Saxon raid. The army of Charles passed to the border with the Slavs - the river Laba. So far to the northeast, the Franks have not yet entered. Karl led a whole army of Christian missionaries, deciding to Christianize all of Saxony. In addition, the king conducted an administrative reform - Saxony was divided into counties (administrative districts), at the head of which were put columns. Among the graphs were notable Saxons, who proved obedient and faithful.
At the beginning of the 782 of the year, considering the conquest of Saxon territory finished, King Carl held a state assembly in Lipspring. It distributed the Saxon lands to local Saxon and Frankish feudal lords, and a feudal system was introduced in Saxony. Additional measures were also taken to destroy paganism. After that, Karl returned to the kingdom with the army.
Religious and administrative reforms, the creation of large feudal land tenure, the eradication of paganism should have made Saxony part of the empire of Charles. The king believed in his victory over the Saxons so much that he already considered Saxony “his”. For example, the French-Saxon army was sent to repel the raid of the Slav-Sorb (Pudzha Serb) invaders into the border lands of Saxony and Thuringia. But Karl miscalculated, the Saxons have not yet obeyed. Humility was ostentatious. In addition, the persecution of the pagans, the introduction of large feudal land tenure, dramatically worsened the situation of the majority of free community members.
Rise of VidukindaVidukind arrived in Saxony and almost instantly the whole country broke out. The uprising destroyed almost all the achievements of Charles. Saxon "noble", who went over to the side of Charles, were mercilessly cut. The Saxons who converted to Christianity were also beaten. Churches burned, priests killed. The missionary, the doctor of theology Villegad, who helped Carl in the process of planting a new religion, barely managed to escape. A pagan uprising flared up in neighboring Frisia.
The army sent against the sorbs was almost completely destroyed in the battle of Süntel. The cavalry detachment under the leadership of Camerius Adalgiz, the constable Geilo and the Palatinate of Vorado, having received the news of the uprising, decided to return to Saxony, where he was to unite with the foot army of Count Thierry. However, before the formation of the Thierry infantry, the knights learned that the Saxon army was located in a camp at Mount Züntel. The proud knights, fearing that in the event of victory, the glory will be given to Count Thierry, a relative of the king, they decided to hit the enemy themselves. Horse attack Saxon troops did not bring success. The Saxons withstood the blow and, surrounding the enemy, exterminated almost the entire force. Among those killed were Adalgiz and Geilo, as well as four more counts and twelve other noble knights. The remnants of the squad fled. Count Thierry, decided not to take the risk and withdrew troops from Saxony.
Karl has not yet experienced such a defeat - the fruits of years of work and ingenious designs were destroyed. Everything had to start almost anew. However, Karl was distinguished by great tenacity and the fact that he did not succumb to difficulties. Karl, as usual in a difficult situation, gathered all his will into a fist. The answer was quick and decisive. He entered history as one of the most terrible examples of ruthlessness.
Charlemagne quickly assembled an army and invaded Saxony, despite the wrong time of year. Turning everything to ashes in his path, the Frankish army reached Weser, in the town of Verdun, where, under the threat of complete extermination, he demanded that all the most active instigators of the insurrection be expelled from the Saxon nobility. The Saxon elders, not finding the strength to offer open resistance (Vidukind fled again to Denmark), called several thousand of their fellow countrymen. By order of Charles they were brought to Verdun and beheaded. In total, up to 4,5 thousand people were killed. Having received the oath of allegiance from the Saxon nobility, the Saxon king left Saxony.
This mass slaughter act had a political, psychological character. Karl showed the Saxons what awaits them in response to further uprisings. In addition, the legal basis for the policy of terror was laid down. All those who broke the oath given to the authorities and the church, revolted, waited for death. But despite this measure of intimidation, the Saxons continued to resist. In response to the continuation of resistance, in the same year Karl issued the First Saxon capitulary. He ordered to punish death any deviation from loyalty to the king, the church and the violation of public order. Thus, any sin against the occupying administration and the church was punishable by death.
Carl almost completely gave Saxony the next three years - 783-785. In the summer of 783, Kal with a large army again invaded Saxony. Upon learning that the Saxons had camped near Detmold, the Frankish king quickly moved there and defeated the enemy. Most of the Saxons were slaughtered. Karl went to Paderborn, where he planned to receive reinforcements and continue the war. But when, a few days later, he learned that a large army of Saxon-Westphalians was standing on the banks of the Haze River, Karl again set off troops on the march. In a heavy oncoming battle, the Saxons were defeated. Frankish sources report rich loot and a large number of prisoners captured after this battle. After inflicting two heavy defeats on the Saxons for several days, the Franks ravaged Saxony to Elba and returned to Francia.
The following 784 and 785 years lord of francs spent in Saxony. During the war, the Saxons were exterminated in open battles and punitive raids. King Carl took hundreds of hostages and took them out of Saxony. Villages that became centers of resistance were completely destroyed. Karl usually spent the winter in Central France, resting from military works. But the winter of 784-785. Karl spent in Saxony and celebrated Christmas, his favorite holiday, in Weser. In the spring, due to the rapid flood of the rivers, he moved to Eresburg. There, Karl ordered to build a church, repaired the castle. From Eresburg, Karl several times went into a punitive raid, threw cavalry detachments across Saxony, destroyed enemy fortifications and villages, destroyed the rebels.
In the spring of 785, Karl convened a general Diet in Paderbon, which was attended by representatives of the Saxon nobility. There was not only Vidukinda, who was elusive and continued to inspire people to resist. Then Carl decided to start negotiations with the leader of the Saxons. Negotiations in Berngau were successful. Vidukind, who at that time moved to the region of the North Saxons, decided that further resistance was meaningless. All battles were lost, Saxony was drenched in blood. Vidukind demanded security guarantees and notable hostages. Karl went for it. Then Vidukind with his closest ally Abbion arrived to the king in Attigny, in Champagne. There they were baptized. Moreover, Karl became the godfather of Widukind and rewarded him with generous gifts. After that, the name Vidukinda disappeared from the chronicles.
The resistance of the Saxons almost ceased. In 785, the Frankish chronicler announced that Kar "had subjugated all of Saxony." So many believed. Pope Adrian glorified Charlemagne, who "with the help of the Savior and with the support of the apostles Peter and Paul ... extended his authority to the lands of the Saxons and brought them to the holy source of baptism." For several years Saxony, covered with blood and covered with the ashes of the burnt villages, “calmed down”. It seemed to invaders that forever.
To be continued ...
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