How England "cheated" Denmark
The Battle of Jasmund. Illustration by Willy Stöwer
The Schleswig-Holstein Question
In the early 1860s, Prussia found itself in a favorable foreign policy situation, which made it possible to resolve the issue of German unification. This was largely due to Bismarck ("Germany will be united not by words, but by blood and iron."), who skillfully resolved the Schleswig-Holstein question.
In November 1863, the Danish King Frederick VII died, and his heir, Christian IX, ascended the throne. The question of who owned the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein arose once again. Denmark, to which Schleswig had historically belonged and which laid claim to Holstein, or the German Confederation, since Holstein was a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. Furthermore, the population of both duchies was German.
The First Schleswig War (1848–1850), sparked by the revolution, did not resolve this issue. The status quo was maintained. King Christian IX claimed to have inherited the duchies and attempted to reintegrate the Duchy of Schleswig into Denmark by signing the so-called November Constitution.
The hereditary rights to the Christian duchies were recognized as early as 1852 by all powers, including the Kingdom of Prussia. But the issue was not one of legal and genealogical subtleties.
British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston noted: "Only three people ever really understood the Schleswig-Holstein affair—Prince Albert, an old Dane, and myself. But Prince Albert, unfortunately, recently died; the old Dane is now in a lunatic asylum, and I have completely forgotten what it was all about."
For Bismarck, the Schleswig-Holstein question was merely a pretext to show all of Germany, all German peoples (a single German nation – “Deutsche” – did not yet exist) that Prussia was taking into its own hands the matter of “liberation” of the entire German land.
At the same time, Bismarck skillfully exploited and even created a favorable foreign policy situation. Relations with Russia were friendly. Denmark had been a traditional Russian ally since the days when the Russians fought the Swedes for leadership in the Baltic. However, Tsar Alexander II had good relations with the Prussian King Wilhelm, his uncle, and with Bismarck. Furthermore, St. Petersburg had no intention of opposing Prussia in concert with those powers that had fought against Russia in the Crimean War (England and France) or had taken a hostile stance (the Austrian Empire).
Austria, France, and England, who together could have thwarted any attempt to unify German territory around Prussia, acted independently. Bismarck managed to reassure London and Paris by demonstrating that Prussia had no intention of incorporating the duchies into its territory, thereby changing the balance of power on the North and Baltic Sea coasts.
Bismarck reached an agreement with Austria, Prussia's main adversary and rival in Germany. Berlin and Vienna formed an alliance against Copenhagen. An alliance between Prussia and Austria could deter both France and England from rebelling.
True, the British were traditionally intriguing. On the one hand, they supported the Danish king's hopes, although Palmerston had no intention of fighting for Denmark. On the other hand, London tried to provoke Russia or France to intervene on Denmark's behalf, to antagonize them with Prussia. However, this time, the French and Russians did not fall for the British provocations.
Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston (1784–1865). For many years, he directed the country's defense and then foreign policy. He was Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1855–1858 and 1859–1865. A skilled politician and an enemy of Russia. Artist: Francis Cruikshank
Danish War
Hoping for English support, the Danish King Christian promulgated a new constitution that enshrined a union between Denmark and Schleswig. Bismarck, having secured a pretext for war, declared that the Danish king had no right to do so, and on January 16, 1864, together with Austria, he issued an ultimatum to Denmark: repeal the constitution within 48 hours.
Copenhagen, hoping for London's support, refused to accept him. However, Palmerston declined to provide assistance to Denmark. The Palmerston cabinet, seeing that the French and Russians were in no hurry to help the Danes, came to the conclusion that a stronger Prussia would be beneficial to England. A strong Prussia acted as a counterweight to Napoleon III's Second Empire and Russia.
In 1865, Palmerston wrote to Lord Rossel that "Germany as a whole has become strong so that it will be able to keep in check both ambitious and warlike powers, France and Russia, which are squeezing it from the West and the East.".
Napoleon III flatly refused to intervene in the Danish War. France was already deeply mired in other adventures, particularly in Mexico. Paris also had no desire to again serve as Britain's "cannon fodder." At this time, the French and British were engaged in a number of serious disagreements over the division of colonies in Africa and Asia. The French emperor hoped to reach an agreement with Prussia regarding the expansion of France's borders on the left bank of the Rhine.
The Danes, left alone before the two great powers, were doomed to defeat. They had the advantage at sea over the Prussians. fleet, which they blockaded in the North and Baltic Seas. But the fate of the war was decided on land, where the Prussians and Austrians had overwhelming superiority.
As V. N. Chudovsky, an officer of the Russian General Staff, noted, not without humor, “if Prussia and Austria had deployed all their land forces against little Denmark, an army would have been formed equal in size to almost the entire male population of Denmark itself… But such a horde would not even have been able to be deployed in the theater of war” (Chudovsky V. N. War for Schleswig-Holstein 1864. St. Petersburg, 1866).
The population of Prussia was over 19 million, the Austrian Empire over 34 million. The population of Denmark was 1,7 million.
Therefore, the allies limited themselves to ensuring numerical superiority. Against the Danish army (4 divisions, over 40 soldiers), they deployed two Prussian corps (4 divisions, over 40 men) and one Austrian corps (5 brigades, 26 soldiers). The Austro-Prussian army was subsequently expanded.
The Allies' technical superiority also played a role. The Danes were better armed than the Austrians, but inferior to the Prussians. The Allies had more cannons. Plus, they had superior military production.
The Danish command's plan was to contain the enemy in favorable positions and stall for time, hoping for diplomatic support from the great powers, as during the First War of Schleswig. The Austro-Prussian command intended to quickly defeat the Danish army, preventing it from retreating to the islands, where the Danes were difficult to reach given their naval superiority. They also wanted to avoid a protracted war in which Russia, France, and England could intervene, as they had in 1848–1852.
By the end of January 1864, the Austro-Prussian army under the overall command of Prussian Field Marshal Friedrich von Wrangel (more than 60 bayonets and sabres with 158 guns) was concentrated south of the Danish defensive line on the Eider River. The Prussians demanded that the Danes evacuate Schleswig. Danish Commander-in-Chief Christian de Meza refused.
Count Friedrich Heinrich Ernst von Wrangel (1784–1877) was a Prussian military leader and field marshal. He was commander-in-chief of the Prussian army in two wars with Denmark (1848–1850, 1864). Portrait by Franz Krüger.
On February 1, the allied forces launched an offensive, with minor skirmishes occurring. De Meza, believing that fierce resistance was pointless given the enemy's numerical superiority, began withdrawing his army from the Dannewerk position on February 6, first to Flensburg and then to Dübbel (Düppel). Part of the Danish army retreated to Jutland, to the fortress of Fredericia. De Meza was relieved of command, and Georg Gerlach, commander of the 1st Division, was appointed as the new commander.
The Danes occupied the Düppel position and held off the enemy until April. Prussian troops besieged Düppel and began occupying towns in Jutland.
Dubbel was unprepared for a prolonged defense, as the Danes planned to wage the main battle at Danevirke. The Danes held out thanks to the naval support and supply available. The fortress received fire support from the newest two-turret battleship, the Rolf Krake. The Prussians were powerless against the ship, lacking a serious naval force or heavy coastal guns.
On April 18, the Prussian troops, after a strong artillery After preparations, they took the fortress, defeating the 8th Danish Brigade. The Danes, having lost about 5 men during the fighting, retreated to Olsen Island. Prussian losses amounted to about 1200 soldiers.
The 8th Danish Brigade at Dybbøl on April 18, 1864. Painting by Jørgen Sonne
It should be noted that the Austro-Prussian army's advance was hampered by poor roads, and the Danes destroyed bridges and crossings, erecting roadblocks and barricades. British and Russian diplomats also opposed the German invasion of Jutland. As a result, the allies failed to destroy the main Danish forces.
After the fall of Dybbel, the Danish High Command ordered the abandonment of Fredericia to preserve its troops. On April 28, the Danes evacuated to the island of Funen.
Ending war
Having lost Dubbel and Fredericia, the Danish King Christian, whom the British continued to assure that they were negotiating with the French for Danish aid, appealed directly to France for support. Paris's response was categorically negative.
A conference of the Great Powers convened in London to discuss the Schleswig issue. A truce had been in effect at the front since May 12, 1864. Austria was leaning toward peace, fearing Britain and due to financial problems. Then Prussia threatened to continue the war alone. Britain proposed dividing the duchies along ethnic lines, but the Danes opposed it. As a result, the negotiations came to nothing.
War resumed at the end of June, and the Prussians occupied the island of Als. On July 14, Prussian troops safely reached Cape Skagen, the northernmost point of Jutland. The new Allied commander-in-chief, Prince Friedrich Karl Nikolai of Prussia, began preparing a landing on the island of Funen.
The Danes, facing total defeat, concluded an armistice on July 16. On October 30, 1864, peace was signed in Vienna. The Danish King Christian ceded all his rights to the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph and the Prussian King Wilhelm I. Denmark lost approximately a third of its territory.
Territorial changes under the Treaty of Vienna
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