Mexican War
Lithograph showing the American victory at Chapultepec
General situation
US expansion unfolded against the backdrop of the weakening positions of Spain and France in North and Central America. The old colonial empires were losing territory after territory, while the young American predator rapidly mounted an offensive.
At the same time, the conquest of Mexican territories was for some time hindered by a split within the American elite. The southern part of the American elite—plantation landowners and slaveholders—was interested in southward expansion to seize fertile lands. Meanwhile, the northern part (financial and industrial capital) was more interested in expanding northward (Canada, Alaska) and establishing a zone of influence in the Asia-Pacific region.
Northerners did not want the growth of slave states and, through abolitionists (from the Latin abolitio—abolition, advocates of abolition), put a spoke in the wheels of the Southerners. Quite soon, this elite and social rift in the United States would lead to an extremely brutal and bloody civil war.
However, among US leaders during this period, the majority were supporters of active expansion, representatives of the Southern elite. Such as Presidents John Tyler (1841–1845) and James Polk (1845–1849), and Secretaries of State Abel Upshur and John Calhoun.
The Americans initially gained dominance in Texas, causing its rebellion in 1835 and the proclamation of "independence" in 1836 (How the US took over Texas). In 1845, the United States annexed Texas, thereby provoking a war with Mexico, which refused to recognize the seizure of its state.
Donkey with Gold
Washington, however, thwarted a potential diplomatic settlement of the Texas issue. From the outset, the Americans had planned to seize not only Texas but also other Mexican territories from the Rio Grande to the Pacific coast. U.S. Representative John Slidell demanded Texas's borders along the upper Rio Grande, significantly expanding the state's borders. Washington sought Mexico's agreement to "sell" (under threat of war) New Mexico and Alta California—in other words, ceding half the country's territory. The Americans also demanded that the material and property claims of their citizens be satisfied. Naturally, the Mexican government could not agree to such brazen demands.
Beginning in early 1846, American troops under General Zachary Taylor entered Texas, and American naval forces blockaded the western and eastern coasts of Mexico. In April 1846, Mexicans and Americans clashed along the Rio Bravo River (called the Rio Grande in the United States). On April 26, Mexican cavalry routed an American patrol (the so-called "Thornton's Slaughter"). This skirmish became the pretext for war.
In this case, The Americans actively used "soft power." As the Macedonian king Philip II, father of the famous conqueror Alexander the Great, said, "Where no army can penetrate, a donkey laden with gold will."
Mexican historiography of the Mexican-American War of 1846–1848 notes the widespread espionage by the United States, the tactic of bribery of Mexican dignitaries, provoking conflicts among the Mexican elite, rebellions against the central government, and support for separatists.
Washington has continued to use all these methods, right up to the present day, creating a system of neocolonialism, color revolutions, and global penetration (the so-called “cultural cooperation” method) with the goal of overthrowing unwanted and outdated regimes and creating “their own sons of bitches.”
Thus, having captured the president and commander-in-chief of the Mexican army, General Santa Anna, during the Texas War of Independence, the Americans treated him quite mercifully, with an eye toward further expansion. The "Napoleon of the West" was released to return home, but during the war with the United States, he issued a number of controversial orders that led to the Mexican defeat. But the general was not an outright traitor; he was playing his own game.
In 1846, the U.S. House of Representatives debated a bill appropriating $2 million to the president for foreign policy purposes. Senator Pierce, along with several other speakers, openly stated that money should be appropriated to "pay Mexican leaders to ensure the obedience of Mexican soldiers."
Thus, it was a frankly predatory, aggressive war on the part of the United States. The Americans prepared, provoked, and launched a war against a weak adversary in order to seize Mexico.
Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794–1876), known simply as "Santa Anna" and "the Napoleon of the West," served 11 terms as President of Mexico over a period of 22 years.
Zachary Taylor (1784–1850) – commander of the Northern Army during the Mexican–American War, 12th President of the United States. Art. Joseph H. Bush
The outbreak of war
On May 3, Mexican troops under General Mariano Arista (about 4 soldiers) crossed the Rio Grande River and began the siege of Fort Brown. On May 8, General Taylor (about 2400 men) arrived to help the fort. The Americans used a new artillery The tactics were called "flying artillery" (light, horse-drawn cannons). Demoralized by the artillery barrage, the Mexicans retreated, losing about 250 men. The Americans lost more than 50 men.
On May 9, the Americans and Mexicans clashed at Resaca de la Palma. American artillery repelled a Mexican cavalry attack. The Americans circled the lake on the right flank and broke through to Arista's headquarters. The Mexican left flank collapsed, and panic began to spread along the entire line. In the center, Captain May's American dragoons captured enemy batteries. The Mexicans fled, losing over 500 men. The Americans lost approximately 120 men.
The Mexicans retreated beyond the Rio Grande, and many drowned in the panicked flight. Arista led the battered detachment to Matamoros. On May 18, the Americans crossed the Rio Grande and occupied the already abandoned Matamoros.
On May 13, the United States officially declared war on Mexico (How the US Captured Half of Mexico). It was a clash between David and the giant Goliath, only the Mexicans didn't have a slingshot. The United States had a more developed industry and a larger population: in 1850, there were more than 23 million people in America, while Mexico, according to demographers, had 7,5 million. The United States had a military fleet, the army was better armed.
The American army's strength at the beginning of the war was small—over 7 bayonets and sabres. But as the war progressed, it grew to 100. In 1846, a recruitment of 50 volunteers began for 12-month service. The Americans were highly motivated. They planned to profit handsomely from the former Spanish colonial empire. The Gringos were planning to have a good time "in the palaces of Montezuma." The officer corps was quite strong, seasoned in border skirmishes and Indian wars.
At the beginning of the war, the Mexican army numbered 23 men, but they were poorly trained and armed. Units and divisions were scattered throughout the country. The soldiers were recruited from peasant peons and Indians, who were poorly motivated. Unwilling to fight for their masters, they quickly fled. Mexico had no navy or military production facilities of its own.
General Taylor at the Battle of Palo Alto: May 8, 1846Invasion
The American high command's strategy was to capture several key points and force Mexico City to accept peace on Washington's terms. If the enemy remained intransigent, the Americans planned to advance south and threaten the Mexican capital.
Taylor's main forces remained in Matamoros for two months, losing several thousand men to epidemics. In early July, Taylor's troops (over 6) advanced on Monterrey, the gateway to Mexico City. The assault began on September 11. The city was defended by 6 soldiers and 3 militia under General Ampudia. Monterrey was sacked with incendiary bombs, and the city was heavily damaged.
The battle lasted four days, with the Americans losing over 500 men. The Mexicans, having exhausted their resistance (in particular, running out of ammunition), agreed to abandon the city. Taylor, who knew that strong reinforcements would soon arrive, allowed the enemy to leave with their colors and weapons.
The Storming of Monterrey. Attack on the Bishop's Palace. Lithograph by Kelloggs and Thayer.
In November, the Americans stopped in Saltillo, the capital of the state of Coahuila. Taylor received orders to halt the advance, as the capital would have to be reached through hundreds of kilometers of desert terrain. Seeing that the Mexicans were not surrendering, the Americans faced the prospect of a protracted war and heavy material and human losses. The idea of landing in Veracruz or Tampico arose.
Meanwhile, Santa Anna, who was in American captivity, negotiated his freedom in exchange for territorial concessions and $30 million in compensation. The Mexicans decided to appoint the "Napoleon of the West" as commander-in-chief, relying on his military talents. After becoming president, Santa Anna hesitated to make a "shameful peace." However, some believe he lost several battles to the Americans, despite the Mexican army's superiority in them. This was particularly true during the assault on Mexico City in September 1847.
At the same time, the US Navy, supported by American colonists, captured California. The American forces were led by Commodore Robert Stockton. Mexican forces in the region were minimal and unable to offer serious resistance. American settlers captured Sonoma and on June 14, 1846, proclaimed the California Republic. In July and August, American sailors occupied Monterey, San Francisco, San Pedro, the state capital of Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and San Diego. On August 17, California became part of the United States.
However, the state soon became engulfed in active guerrilla warfare. By the end of November, Mexican guerrillas had recaptured almost the entire state, save for a few coastal ports. The patriots even recaptured Los Angeles.
General Stephen Kearny's so-called "Army of the West" was sent to conquer New Mexico. The state's population had previously expressed a desire to secede from Mexico, so the Americans believed victory would be easy. And so it proved. There was virtually no resistance.
On June 5, Kearny's force (approximately 3000 soldiers, marching in units) departed Fort Leavenworth, Missouri, and marched toward Santa Fe, eventually reaching the Pacific coast. In August, the Americans crossed the Arkansas River, then occupied Las Vegas, San Miguel, and Santa Fe. On August 22, New Mexico was annexed by the United States.
In September 1846, Kearny and a small detachment of dragoons set out for the Pacific Coast. In December, Kearny arrived in California and joined forces with Stockton. In January 1847, the Americans defeated the Mexicans in a series of skirmishes and recaptured Los Angeles.
In September, General John Wool's "Central Army" (3000 soldiers) set out from the Texas city of San Antonio to capture Chihuahua (the center of the state of the same name).
The Battle of Rio San Gabriel. Artist: James Walker. The decisive battle for California. January 8, 1847. The combined forces of Commodore Robert Stockton and General Stephen Kearny (approximately 600 soldiers) defeated the Mexican cavalry detachment of General Andrés Pico (approximately 500 men).
Battle of Buena Vista
On November 10, 1846, Commodore Matthew Perry's squadron (who would, a few years later, "discover" Japan for the West) captured one of the most important ports, Tampico. During the 1847 campaign, Perry captured nearly all the ports on the southern Gulf Coast. However, the Americans were unable to advance inland due to guerrilla resistance and poor communications. On the coast, the garrisons were supported by the Navy.
Washington, seeing that Taylor was unable to end the war, appointed a new commander-in-chief, Winfield Scott. He led the Southern Army, aimed at Veracruz. Taylor's Northern Army remained at Saltillo, distracting the enemy.
Winfield Scott (1786–1866), commander-in-chief of the Southern Army during the Mexican-American War. Photograph (1849) by Matthew B. Brady.
By early 1847, Santa Anna, using funds confiscated from the church and landowners, had raised a 25-strong army and marched on Taylor. The Americans (approximately 5-6) took up a position at the Buena Vista hacienda. The Mexican troops, who had made a difficult march through the desert in the winter (men died of hypothermia), suffered heavy non-combat losses. The troops suffered from a lack of water and food, and there was no forage for the horses. Several thousand men deserted. As a result, only about 15 were able to engage in battle.
The battle took place on February 22–23, 1847, in a narrow mountain pass on the road from San Luis Potosi to Saltillo. Santa Anna offered his numerically inferior enemy surrender, but Taylor refused. On the 22nd, the fighting was limited to a skirmish between the forward units; both sides remained in position throughout the night.
The Mexican cavalry and light infantry outflanked the enemy, and the Americans were saved by artillery, which literally mowed down the Mexicans. The American left flank collapsed, and some soldiers fled to Saltillo. During the decisive attack, the Mexicans routed three regiments: Hardin's 1st Illinois, Bissell's 2nd Illinois, and McKee's 2nd Kentucky. Colonels John Hardin and William McKee and Lieutenant Colonel Henry Clay, Jr. were killed. Once again, American artillery saved the day.
Taylor maneuvered his units, holding off the enemy. Generals Taylor and John Wool fought bravely and energetically, inspiring their soldiers with their belief in victory. The Mexicans attacked in isolated units, in isolated areas, failing to capitalize on their numerical superiority.
At sunset, Santa Anna ordered a retreat, even though he was one step away from victory. He later justified his actions by citing exhaustion and demoralization of the troops (the peons and Indians were unwilling to fight), a lack of adequate supplies, and a lack of ammunition. American casualties in the battle amounted to over 700 men, while Mexican losses, according to various sources, ranged from 1,5 to 3,5.
Santa Anna abandoned his army and retreated to the capital. On the return journey, again through deserts, suffering from cold, hunger, and disease, the Mexican army literally disintegrated and fled, losing several thousand more men. Barely half the army returned to San Luis. This did not stop the "Napoleon of the West" from declaring victory.
The Battle of Buena Vista. Lithograph by Adolphe Jean-Baptiste Baillot after a drawing by Carl Nebel.
The Fall of Mexico City
Meanwhile, another turmoil erupted in Mexico. The government of Gómez Farías decided to confiscate church treasures to wage war. The churchmen, who had fervently prayed for victory, refused to share. They were supported by the conservative element of society, landowners, and illiterate peasants. They argued that it would be better for the Americans to come than for the revolutionaries to win.
In response to the confiscations, a series of rebellions erupted. In particular, the militia assembled in Mexico City rebelled. Creoles also rebelled against the government. When Santa Anna arrived in the capital, he was again summoned to "reign." Farías was removed from power. The Church gave Santa Anna money in exchange for a promise not to interfere with it again.
Naval bombardment of Veracruz. Lithograph by N. Carrier
In March 1847, General Scott's American landing force captured Mexico's main port, Veracruz. In April, the Americans (9) routed Santa Anna's forces (12) in the Cerro Gordo gorge. American sappers managed to outflank the enemy's left flank through mountains and forests considered impassable, and dragged cannons through. Attacked from the front and flank, the Mexicans gave in and fled. It was a rout. Mexican losses were over 4, while American losses were over 400.
In April, the Americans occupied the city of Perot, capturing a large arsenal. On May 15, the Americans occupied the city of Puebla, which was dominated by churchmen who chose to surrender the city without a fight.
The Battle of Cerro Cordo. Illustration by N. Carrier
Peace negotiations were underway in June and July. However, the Americans demanded two-thirds of the country, not counting Texas. Santa Anna was unwilling to accept this and formed a new army. Volunteers with high morale, ready to fight for Mexico City, were joining the army.
General Scott, having received reinforcements in August and brought his army up to 10 soldiers, continued the offensive. In a series of battles, the Americans, taking advantage of their superior artillery, routed the Mexicans. Meanwhile, Mexican resistance significantly increased, and they were already fighting for the capital.
In September 1847, the Americans captured Mexico City and several other key points in Mexico after fierce fighting. Public opinion in the United States demanded the complete occupation of Mexico.
Santa Anna could have continued the war, this time as a people's guerrilla war. He could have cut off the road from Veracruz to Mexico City. The Americans, with such forces, extremely stretched communications, and a population that hated the gringos, would have been forced to retreat to the coast. However, Mexico's wealthy elite did not want such a war. Landowners and clergy feared a people's war, anarchy, and revolution. Meanwhile, many northern states were ready to declare independence.
Therefore, power passed from Santa Anna to the peace advocates—the Moderados. Supreme Court Chief Justice Manuel de la Peña y Peña was elected interim president. The peace process was left to the Mexican Congress. Santa Anna fled to the mountains and then went into further exile in Jamaica.
The Storming of Chapultepec. Lithograph by Adolphe Bayo based on a drawing by Carl Nebel.
"Obscene World"
Under these circumstances, the Mexican authorities agreed to a "shameful" peace. On February 2, 1848, a treaty was signed in Guadalupe Hidalgo, ceding more than half of Mexico's territory (2,3 million square kilometers) to the United States. New Mexico and the northern part of California (the so-called "Alta California") became part of the United States. The American states of Arizona, New Mexico (New Mexico), Nevada, and California, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming, were created on this territory.
For this vast territory, larger than Germany and France combined, America paid Mexico $15 million in "compensation" and assumed the Mexican government's obligations to pay American citizens $3,2 million.
In March 1848, the treaty was ratified by the US Senate. That summer, American troops withdrew from Mexico. The US had achieved complete hegemony in North America. American politicians and the press, intoxicated by victory, demanded new conquests and the expansion of the US southern border to Guatemala.
After the war, Mexico was in complete decline. Generals staged one mutiny after another. Officials set records for abuse and corruption. Bandits paralyzed the roads. Yucatan saw its own war between Indians and Creoles (descendants of white settlers). A brutal massacre wiped out half the peninsula's population. Indians from the Sierra Gorda mountain region of central Mexico raided the surrounding territories. American bandits and warlike Indians from Texas and Arizona also raided Mexican lands.
Only the guerrilla war and revolution (1854-1855) in Mexico, which led to the fall of General Santa Anna's regime (he again broke through to power), as well as the split and civil war in the States themselves, thwarted the plans for the complete capture of Mexico by the United States.
Mexico's new liberal government began secularizing church lands and adopted a constitution. The authorities intensified colonization and development of the sparsely populated northern states to avoid further territorial losses.
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