How the Russians took Paris, or the Great March to the West
"Or should we start arguing with Europe again?"
AS Pushkin
AS Pushkin
Alexander I is perhaps one of the most successful rulers in Russian history. storiesHe not only repelled the invasion of a united Europe, but also made the Great March to the West, triumphantly entering Paris on March 31, 1814.
The Greatness of Alexander I
The successes of the Russian tsars before and after Alexander I were much more modest—none managed to triumphantly enter the capital of a major enemy state. They fought the Swedes, Turks, and Japanese, but their capitals were inaccessible to our armies. We never took Stockholm, Istanbul, or Tokyo. True, we captured Berlin under Elizabeth Petrovna (1760), but Germany had not yet achieved power. In terms of effectiveness, Alexander I can be compared only to Ivan the Terrible, Catherine the Great, and perhaps Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin.
Despite its obvious triumph, historians tend to downplay the significance of the Great March to the West. On Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, the campaign is completely subsumed within the faceless War of the Sixth Coalition. Other reference sources modestly list it as the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army of 1813–1814.
Meanwhile, an extraordinary event took place, comparable to the campaigns of Alexander the Great or Genghis Khan. The Russian Tsar Alexander I not only repelled the attack but also crushed the powerful French Emperor Napoleon, before whom all of Europe trembled.
How was this possible? By the end of the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia was exhausted. By the beginning of the Foreign Campaign, the Russian army numbered approximately 100 soldiers. The French army had approximately the same number, but Napoleon had virtually all of Europe behind him, with its colossal industrial and mobilization potential.
The Inevitability of the Long March
Studying the history of the Great Patriotic War, no one doubts that Hitler needed not only to be driven out of the country but also to be completely destroyed by the regime he had created. However, after the Patriotic War of 1812, "enlightened" Russian society wavered, and many were opposed to continuing the fighting. Such thoughts were even attributed to Field Marshal Kutuzov. There is even a legend about his curse on Alexander I for the Foreign Campaign. Supposedly, Kutuzov told the Russian Tsar before his death: "I forgive you, but Russia will not forgive you.".
However, Napoleon, defeated at the Berezina, did not seek peace, so Alexander I had little choice. Either give the French army time to rebuild, or seize the window of opportunity. And an opportunity did indeed present itself.
After Napoleon's defeat, unrest began within his multinational army of "twelve languages." The Austrians and Germans (Prussians) wanted out, but while the former sought only neutrality, the latter were inspired by ideas of German national liberation from the French yoke. German nationalism subsequently caused much misery, including to Russia itself, but it would have been a shame not to take advantage of it.
Alexander I believed he was being guided by Providence itself, so he decided not to wait for the revival of Napoleon's army. On January 12, 1813, Field Marshal Kutuzov, guided by the will of the Russian Tsar, addressed his soldiers with the following words:
Let us cross the borders and strive to complete the defeat of the enemy in his own fields.
The Beginning of the Foreign Campaign
The Russian army crossed the border river Neman and entered Prussian territory, which at that time was completely dependent on France. Remarkably, the Russian army was not going to conquer, but to liberate.
In German historiography, the Russian army's overseas campaign is referred to as the Befreiungskriege—the War of Liberation. It was then that the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III instituted the infamous Iron Cross military decoration. It was initially awarded to those Germans who fought on Russia's side.
The Russian army advanced easily where local (East) Germans welcomed their liberators. However, the garrisons of the French fortresses on the Vistula held out until the end of 1813. Danzig (Gdansk) capitulated only on November 29, and Modlin on December 1.
Poland (then the Duchy of Warsaw) was defended by the Austrian corps of Marshal Schwarzenberg, but it was possible to negotiate neutrality with him, and he retreated without a fight to the borders of the Austrian Empire.
Flying detachments (a larger version of sabotage and reconnaissance groups) of the Russian army under the command of Generals Wintzingerode, Tettenborn and Chernyshev, with the assistance of the local population, quickly occupied such German cities as Berlin (March 4), Hamburg (March 17), Dresden (March 28) and Leipzig (April 4).
However, three months after its launch, the Russian army's overseas campaign fizzled out. Napoleon had managed to assemble and lead a large army force of 200,000 men into central Germany (Thuringia), almost twice the size of the Russian army's expeditionary corps. Russia also suffered a heavy loss: on April 28, Field Marshal Kutuzov died suddenly in Silesia (southwestern Poland).
The Russian army was in turmoil. The new commander, General Wittgenstein, though renowned as the savior of St. Petersburg, demonstrated very modest results in his new role.
Battle of Lützen
During the Battle of Lützen on May 2, 1813, Wittgenstein encountered Napoleon's renewed army and decided to attack it on the march to Leipzig (Saxony). However, something went wrong. Napoleon deployed his reserves wisely and won the battle. The Russian army retreated back beyond the Elbe. Saxony, and with it the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, were lost. Wittgenstein blamed General Yermolov for the lack of artillery, and he blamed General Arakcheyev for the lack of horses. This led to the joke that an honest man's reputation depends on his livestock.
The forced retreat of the Russian army to Silesia demonstrated that the problem lay not in unfortunate accidents, but in systemic errors. Napoleon compared Lützen to Austerlitz, which marked a turning point in the military operations, and Alexander I was forced to reassure his colleague, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III, and promise that all was not yet lost.
Armistice of Pleiswitz
Wittgenstein was replaced as commander of the Russian army by Barclay de Tolly, but on June 4 Napoleon was forced to conclude the Pleiswitz Armistice, which lasted for two months.
When the guns fell silent, the diplomats began to speak. Austria, represented by Ambassador Metternich, tried to persuade the parties to peace, but Napoleon's ambitions made him a poor negotiator. The French emperor demanded obedience, refused to make concessions, and threatened to occupy Vienna by October. Ultimately, Austria defected to Russia, and the Russian army was reinforced by both German (Prussian) and Austrian recruits. Great Britain and Sweden also supported Alexander I.
The summer truce of 1813 significantly increased the size of the Russian army. It was now divided into the Silesian (Russian-Prussian) and Bohemian (Russian-Austrian) armies. For political reasons, Field Marshals Blücher and Schwarzenberg were placed at the head of these groups. The core of these armies consisted of the Russian corps of Osten-Sacken and Barclay de Tolly. The overall command of the Foreign Campaign remained with the Russian Emperor Alexander I, who was stationed at the headquarters of the Bohemian army.
The historian S. M. Solovyov, in the spirit of his time, called the Russian emperor Agamemnon among kings, and V. M. Bezotosny characterized Alexander I as "shadow commander in chief" the entire coalition army of the Foreign Campaign.
The Battle of Germany: The Defeat of Dresden and the Victory at Leipzig
On August 26, after the end of the armistice, the major Battle of Dresden began, but the colossal coalition army led by Alexander I was unable to capitalize on its numerical superiority. The Russian Tsar, mindful of his failure at Austerlitz in 1805, trusted his generals, but there was no unity among them. The loose army had not yet developed combat coordination: the Germans (Prussians) often rushed things, while the Austrians sought to act more cautiously.
However, victory in the Battle of Dresden did not bring the French any significant advantage, as on August 29, in the Ore Mountains near Kulm, the Russian detachment of General Osterman-Tolstoy stopped Marshal Vandamme's corps and completely routed it. The status quo was restored. But time was working against Napoleon, as German national unrest was reaching critical mass.
On October 16, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig began, poetically dubbed the "Battle of the Nations." It involved not only Russians and French, but also Germans, Austrians, Poles, Swedes, Italians, British, Kalmyks, and Bashkirs. It became a turning point in the Foreign Campaign, as it drove Napoleon back beyond the Rhine. The French army numbered 200,000 soldiers, while the coalition army had 300,000. Alexander I's army was not only larger but also had undergone combat coordination. Lessons were learned from the mistakes of Lützen and Dresden.
At the decisive moment of the battle, the German (Saxon) units of Napoleon's army defected to the Russian side in full battle formation. German patriotism prevailed over loyalty to Napoleon, as further trench warfare would only have worsened the devastation of Saxony. The French tend to overestimate this betrayal, while the historian Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky believed that victory was already tilting toward the Russians, and the Germans simply did not want to end up on the losing side.
Be that as it may, Napoleon lost three marshals in this battle (Poniatowski was killed, while Rainier and Saint-Cyr were captured). He also lost Germany (except Hamburg), and its financial and mobilization resources were now devoted to Russia. The defeat at Leipzig led to the capitulation of a number of French fortresses in the rear of the Russian army.
The Rhine Campaign
In November 1813, the Russian army reached the Rhine. Germany ended there, and so did the goodwill of the Germans, who had readily provided forage, recruits, and reconnaissance. Having driven Napoleon back beyond the Rhine, the Austrians felt their mission accomplished and had no desire to fight the nation of Robespierre and the Marquis de Sade. Everyone feared a popular war, which could be sparked by local patriotic propaganda.
Alexander I divided his army into two parts: the Silesian Army crossed the Middle Rhine near Mainz, while the Bohemian Army moved upriver to Basel, Switzerland, and only there entered French territory. The local population was plunged into apathy and despondency, so despite the appeals of the French authorities, no partisan movement was observed. Furthermore, Alexander I strictly ensured that the war was conducted according to the rules, without looting or killing civilians. The Russian army was also assisted by a "fifth column" of French royalists who viewed Napoleon as an illegitimate revolutionary dictator.
However, it was no easy walk through France. Retreating from the border region of Lorraine, Napoleon suddenly attacked the extended positions of the Silesian Army in the Champagne region. At the Battle of Brienne on January 29, the French defeated the advancing Russian army and forced it to retreat. A week later, Napoleon completely routed General Olsufyev's Russian detachment at the Battle of Champaubert (February 10). The Russian army was forced to change tactics and begin maneuvering to avoid being picked off piecemeal. These tactical retreats are sometimes portrayed as the near-defeat of the Silesian Army during the "Six-Day War." However, the Russian army was in no position to stand firm in its captured positions.
Alexander I reinforced the Silesian Army with General Wintzingerode's corps, which allowed the advance on Paris to continue. On March 4, Soissons, 90 kilometers northeast of the French capital, was captured. The defeat (retreat) of the Russian army at Craon on March 7 was essentially a regrouping before the victory at Laon (March 10).
Napoleon retreated southeast to engage the Army of Bohemia, which he now considered his weak link. The Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube on March 20 was the last major battle he fought before his abdication. The French army encountered the main allied forces, engaging in a counterattack. It became clear that the local victories over the Russian generals were due solely to their own missteps. The coalition army had superior numbers and firepower.
Russian cannons on Montmartre
Having suffered a defeat at Arcis-sur-Aube, Napoleon retreated north and advanced toward the Rhine, attempting to divert the Russian army from Paris. However, Alexander I was not fooled by this maneuver. Having united with the Silesian Army at Châlons, he headed for the French capital, crushing the reserve corps of Marshals Mortier and Marmont at Fère-Champenoise (March 25). In the rear of the advancing Russian army, Napoleon was confronted by a screening force composed of Wintzingerode's corps, which successfully accomplished its task at Saint-Dizier. Three days later, the Russians were already on the outskirts of Paris.
At first, the Parisians tried to resist, but the Russian cannons on Montmartre threatened to reduce Paris to rubble. On March 30, the French capital capitulated, and on March 31, Alexander I triumphantly entered the city on a white horse, accompanied by the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III, Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, and a squadron of Cossacks. Local royalists welcomed the Russian tsar. The French Senate deposed Napoleon and elected a provisional government.
The Great March to the West came to a solemn end.
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