How the US Captured Half of Mexico
Ceremonial fireworks display in Veracruz, Mexico, from the American fleet and the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa in honor of the American flag raised over this city and castle on March 29, 1847
Republic of Texas
The main precipitating factor for the war was the Texas issue. In 1835, American immigrants rebelled, expelled Mexican garrisons, and proclaimed the Republic of Texas. Mexican leader Santa Anna led troops to suppress the separatists, but after initial successes, he was defeated in the Battle of the San Jacinto River, captured, and signed the Treaty of Velasco. Santa Anna ended the war, withdrew Mexican troops, and recognized the independence of Texas.How the US took over Texas).
The first president of the Republic of Texas was Sam Houston, who commanded troops during the Mexican War. After the capital was repeatedly moved, the new city of Houston, named in honor of the general and first president, was chosen as the center of power in 1837. In 1839, another new city, Austin, became the capital, named in honor of Stephen Austin, one of the founding fathers of independent Texas. The new cities grew rapidly due to the influx of American settlers.
The Mexican government refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas. But Texas effectively gained independence. The Republic of Texas was recognized by the United States in 1837, and later by the leading powers of Western Europe. By strengthening ties with Mexico and Texas, the British sought to weaken the United States' position on the continent, gain a market for industrial goods, and reduce the United States' monopoly on cotton production.
From that time on, the United States strengthened its military presence in Texas, preparing for its annexation. Mexican authorities protested. For example, in May 1842, Mexican Foreign Minister Bocanegra protested the open rallies held in the United States demanding the annexation of Texas. Volunteers were recruited for Texas, and a weapon and equipment.
American authorities responded to such protests by claiming that "freedom of speech" existed in the country and that individual settlers, not armed groups, were moving from the United States to Texas. In reality, in the 30s and 40s, the United States was actively preparing for a war with Mexico with the goal of seizing vast territories. Thousands of volunteers were arriving in Texas.
Texas politicians themselves demanded the republic's expansion to the Pacific Ocean at the expense of Mexican territory. Border conflicts and skirmishes were constant on the Mexican-Texas border.
Map of the Republic of Texas showing disputed territories and current state boundaries
Texas annexation
During this period, the United States was engulfed in a struggle between two elite groups: the southern plantation owners, who demanded expansion into the fertile lands of Mexico, and the northern capitalists, who acted through abolitionists (from the Latin abolitio, "abolition"). The abolitionists demanded the abolition of slavery and did not want to strengthen the slave states at the expense of Texas. This struggle would soon lead to the division of the United States and the Civil War. At this stage, however, it delayed the capture of Texas.
In 1841, John Tyler, a descendant of slave-owning planters, became president of the United States. Tyler was a staunch Southerner and authorized the annexation of Texas. In 1843, the president replaced Secretary of State Daniel Webster, who opposed Texas annexation, with Abel Upshur, a supporter of the annexation of the Republic of Texas.
Upsher began secret negotiations with the Texas government. Mexico learned of this and declared that if Congress recognized the annexation, Mexico would sever diplomatic relations and declare war on the United States. Upsher formally denied this, but continued negotiations with the Texans and persuaded senators to agree to annex Texas.
During this period, a letter from Mississippi Senator Robert Walker was published, outlining the fundamental principles of those who advocated annexing Texas. The senator noted that Texas annexation was consistent with the ideas of territorial expansion articulated by Presidents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. The United States had acquired Texas from France in 1803.
Texas would become a state through which Black and Native Americans could migrate to Mexico, Central, and South America. At that time, the idea of Black resettlement was popular in the United States. It also appealed to Northerners, who feared the emergence of a large community of free Black people.
Walker also noted the dangers of British policy, which was attracting Texas to its side. The British would be able to obtain cheap, duty-free Texas cotton, which would undermine the US cotton industry. The senator wrote that the annexation of Texas would economically strengthen the entire country, not just the South. Overall, Walker's letter reflected the sentiments of much of American society.
On February 28, 1844, an explosion occurred on the ship Princeton, killing Upsher and Secretary of the Navy Gilmer. A preliminary agreement with Austin had been reached the day before.
The Death of Upsher and Gilmer on Board the Frigate Princeton. New York: N. Currier
President Tyler appointed John Calhoun as the new Secretary of State, who was also a Southerner, a staunch supporter of the preservation of slavery, an opponent of the centralization of power (including the secession of individual states in the event of gross violations by the federal government) and the seizure of Texas.
In June 1844, Tyler submitted a draft treaty for the annexation of Texas to the Senate. However, the majority of senators rejected it. It turned out that the agreement would not garner the required two-thirds vote in the Senate. The president and his policies were unpopular. So the presidential administration resorted to a stratagem, passing a so-called "joint resolution" of both houses of Congress. It was passed separately by the Senate and the House of Representatives, but a simple majority was required.
John Tyler Jr. (1790–1862) was the 10th president of the United States (1841–1845). Tyler became the first president to assume office not by election, but as vice president following the death of the incumbent. American artist George Peter Alexander Healy
The Union Resolution was proposed by Tyler in December 1844, after the election of President James Polk. Polk won on the platform of sweeping territorial expansion for the United States.
In January 1845, the House of Representatives approved a resolution to annex Texas, and the Senate subsequently passed it. On March 1, 1845, Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (the last day of his presidency), he forwarded it to Texas. Official annexation occurred on December 29, with the agreement signed by the new President, Polk.
In Texas itself, the corresponding work was carried out. The Texas Convention, whose members were mostly Southerners, on July 4, 1845, approved Texas's accession to the United States (only one delegate opposed it) and drafted a new constitution affirming the legality of the slave trade. Thus, Texas became the 28th state of the United States.
James Knox Polk (1795–1849) was the 11th President of the United States (1845–1849). He is considered one of the most outstanding leaders of the United States. His presidency was marked by the largest territorial acquisitions for the United States since the Louisiana Purchase: New Mexico and California were conquered during the Mexican-American War, and Oregon was ceded to Britain. Thus, the United States gained access to the second ocean and became a major Pacific power.
Occupation and the beginning of the war
The Americans prepared for a possible war in advance. In the summer of 1835, General Zachary Taylor's American occupation corps (numbering over 3,5 soldiers by the fall), which had extensive experience in Indian warfare, occupied the port of Corpus Christi. An American fleet was stationed in the Gulf of Mexico.
Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States were severed. President Polk was prepared to fight, but formally expressed a desire to begin negotiations to restore diplomatic relations. In September 1845, Secretary of State Buchanan asked Mexican authorities whether they would accept an American envoy to address the dispute.
The American Army of Occupation Camp at Corpus Christi. Artist: Charles R. Parsons
Washington dispatched John Slidell, a staunch supporter of US territorial expansion, to Mexico. Slidell was essentially provoking Mexico City. The Americans had no intention of reconciling. On the contrary, they made new demands. Specifically, they demanded that Texas's western border be established along the upper Rio Grande, which would significantly expand the state's border. Most importantly, the American administration proposed the sale of New Mexico and Old California. The Americans offered between $16 million and $40 million for these territories. Slidell also demanded that the Mexican government satisfy the Americans' property claims of $3 million.
Thus, the United States provoked the war, wanting to exploit Mexico's military and economic weakness and seize its most promising, potentially resource-rich regions, thereby gaining full access to the Pacific Ocean.
At that time, Mexico was disunited, engulfed in political struggle between various factions. Presidents and ministers frequently changed and lacked strong power. Public opinion was generally against making concessions to the Americans. Therefore, Mexico City rejected Slidell's mission. Mexico hoped for support from Britain and France, and for domestic opposition within the United States itself.
In January 1846, General Taylor received orders to advance to the Rio Grande and occupy any advantageous position. In March, American troops invaded Mexican territory without declaring war and occupied several settlements on the northern bank of the Rio Grande.
Zachary Taylor (1784 – 1850) – American military leader, 12th President of the United States
For some time, Taylor negotiated with the Mexican military sent to defend the border. Taylor insisted that his troops' march was intended to maintain peace while negotiations took place. The Mexicans considered this an act of war. Taylor began building fortifications and closed the Rio Grande River to disrupt the Mexican troops' supply lines.
On April 24, a new commander, General Mariano Arista, arrived in Matamoros and ordered Mexican troops to cross the Rio Grande.
On April 25, 1846, on the left bank of the Rio Grande, Mexican cavalry clashed with a small patrol of American dragoons from the 2nd Dragoon Regiment under Captain Seth Thornton. The Americans neglected reconnaissance, believing the Mexicans had not yet crossed the Rio Grande. As a result, the detachment was ambushed and routed. Sixteen Americans were killed, six were wounded, and more than 40 were captured. This skirmish was later called the Thornton Incident, named after the American officer who commanded the patrol.
Thus began the war. President Polk used this skirmish to declare war. In a message to Congress, Polk asserted: "Mexico has violated the boundaries of the United States, invaded our territory, and shed American blood on American soil." Polk demanded that Congress declare war on Mexico.
A joint session of Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war. On May 13, the United States officially entered the war. Taylor was ordered to occupy northeastern Mexico. If Mexico City refused to surrender, American troops were to advance south, threatening the Mexican capital.
To be continued ...
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