On the training firing of the Russian Imperial Navy in 1903 and the expenditure of shells on them
“The instructions to the commanders of batteries, groups and plutongs of the squadron battleship Peresvet describe in great detail the number and procedure for conducting training firing of ships of the Russian Imperial Navy. fleet, which were adopted in 1903. I would like to note that this “Instruction”, although it was written for one ship, actually reflected the state of affairs throughout the Pacific Ocean Squadron.
Training shooting could be roughly divided into:
1. Barrel-fired guns – when, to conserve barrel life and ammunition, 37mm barrels were installed in guns of 6-inch and larger calibers (probably also in 120mm, but the Peresvet simply didn't have such guns), and rifle barrels were installed in guns of 75mm and smaller calibers. Accordingly, barrel-fired guns were fired with small-caliber projectiles and rifle cartridges.
2. Combat - when training or combat shells were fired that corresponded to the caliber of the guns.
3. Mixed - when, within the framework of one exercise, some guns conduct barrel firing, while others fire caliber projectiles.
I'd like to point out that this classification is my own. The "Instructions" divided shooting into practical (barrel and mixed) and combat.
Barrel shooting in 1903
In the lead-up to the Russo-Japanese War, barrel firing varied in type. The simplest, initial type was auxiliary firing, which was conducted either at anchor or underway.
Auxiliary shooting at anchor. The target was a model ship towed by a steam launch; unfortunately, the model's dimensions are not specified. Firing was carried out with 37mm shells at ranges of 4 to 10 cable lengths, and rifle cartridges at ranges of 1 to 4 cable lengths. Several of the ship's guns were prepared for firing, trained crews fired the required number of shots, and then they were relieved by other crews. It is unclear from the description whether dials were used to control this firing, but I can assume that in some cases they were. When firing 37mm shells, special firing tables were used, designed for the separate use of black and smokeless powder, but firing rifle bullets was done without tables, only by sighting.
Auxiliary shooting on the move. It was fired at one or more pyramidal or rectangular canvas shields. Shooting was carried out according to all the rules. artillery Science: fire was controlled centrally, distances were transmitted using dials, and trainees had to not only determine the aiming position but also calculate the rear sight correction, including for their own ship's movement, etc. All guns participated in firing, so the crews were stationed at their guns, as in combat. Training with two or more shields allowed for practice in transferring fire from one target to another and split-fire: some plutongs would fire at one of them, while others would fire at the other. However, it was noted that such training was extremely rare.
During firing exercises, the ship was required to maneuver so that its shields were initially within 4-10 cable lengths, allowing medium- and large-caliber artillery to fire 37mm shells. Once the exercise was complete, it was moved closer to 1-4 cable lengths to train the crews of guns of 75mm and smaller calibers firing rifle rounds. Several ships could participate in the exercise simultaneously, which was permissible, but not required.
During the secondary firing exercises (at anchor and underway), both zeroing and rapid fire were practiced. Each gunner (there were two—the first and second gunners) was required to fire five 37mm rounds or ten rifle rounds. The first three 37mm rounds or five slug rounds were fired individually, allowing the gunner to observe the fall of their shells or bullets. Then they moved on to rapid fire with all guns, firing two 37mm rounds or five slugs, respectively.
Mixed shooting
Squadron counter-tack firing. Medium and large-caliber guns used 37mm rounds, while 47mm guns fired "cannonballs," or training projectiles. Interestingly, the 75mm guns didn't fire any rounds during this exercise, but their crews were required to practice aiming at the shields without firing.
Firing was conducted at several shields towed by ships in another column. Firing was conducted within a sector of 35–145 degrees, assuming the ship's direction of travel was zero degrees. Firing at shields outside this sector was prohibited, even if the gun's firing angle permitted it. The firing order was as follows: all guns capable of firing at the lead shield opened fire on it; when it entered the sector, the others joined in as the shield entered their firing sector. Firing was permitted as long as the shield was:
1. For bow guns - no further than a third of their firing sector from the beam to the bow;
2. For medium guns - no further than the beam;
3. For stern guns - no further than half of their firing sector from the beam to the stern.
Upon reaching the specified values, the guns were to transfer fire to the next shield. The end shield was to be fired upon either as long as the gun's firing arc permitted, or upon reaching the 145-degree arc in which firing was permitted.
As for centralized fire control, it was practically nonexistent in this type of exercise. Only the target's abeam range was transmitted verbally and only once. The only exception was if the ship changed course, in which case the distance was announced again. However, firing was not conducted by eye—based on the abeam range, the corresponding firing tables were used to set the sights and rear sights.
Squadron counter-tack shooting could be competitive. In this case, each ship was assigned its own shield, marked with a "vane" (a sort of sign or emblem of the ship), and fired only at that shield.
First preparatory shooting. All artillery, from the main caliber up to and including the 47mm, participated in it. Medium- and large-caliber artillery fired 37mm shells, while 75mm and 47mm guns were required to fire cast-iron "cannonballs"—blanks. In the absence of these, unloaded cast-iron shells were permitted. Under certain circumstances, cannonballs or unloaded shells of large calibers could be used for the initial preparatory firing. Furthermore, if by some miracle enough shells were available for practice firing, even loaded shells for all calibers except the main caliber could be used.
However, given the general shortage of ammunition, it is obvious that the most common option was the basic one: 75 mm and smaller - cast iron blanks or unloaded shells, and for larger calibers - barrels and 37 mm.
Firing was conducted at a standard pyramidal shield while moving, at a speed of 10-12 knots. The 37mm shells were pre-loaded, and for the guns firing the full-caliber rounds, elevators and magazines were used for training—the loading was carried out in the same way as in combat.
First, medium- and large-caliber guns, as well as 75mm artillery, fired. Then, after they completed their exercises and approached the target, the 47mm guns took over. For the gun crews of 75mm and above, the initial preparatory firing simulated combat—all commands were issued centrally, dials, whistlers, and firing tables were used, sight and rear sight adjustments were determined, etc. Firing always began with sighting, followed by an equally obligatory transition to fire to kill. Firing with the 47mm guns, however, was conducted while approaching the target shield; the gunners were not informed of the distance to it, so the effectiveness of their fire was left entirely to the eye and skill of their gunners.
Interestingly, in some cases, the 47mm guns were fired at virtually point-blank range—at a shield located just a few fathoms from the ship. This was considered a very challenging exercise, as the shield quickly moved relative to the ship and quickly passed through the arc of fire of each gun.
During both the squadron counter-tack firing and the initial preparatory firing of 37-mm shells from medium- and large-caliber artillery, the first and second gunners, artillery quartermasters, and warrant officers were required to fire, while lieutenants were free to do so. The 47-mm cannon was fired by one gunner, who was authorized to fire it. Each gunner was assigned five rounds, but the 75-mm cannons received only three.
Battle Shooting
Second preparatory shooting. It was almost the same as the first preparatory shooting, but there were some differences.
1. For firing from all calibers, it was necessary to use cast-iron “cores” (for small-caliber artillery) and unloaded cast-iron shells for the rest.
2. Since the firing was carried out with high-caliber projectiles, the distances increased significantly. Unfortunately, the "Instructions" don't specify by how much, but from the data I have, it can be assumed that the firing began at 25 cable lengths and continued as the guns approached. As in the first preparatory exercise, guns of 75mm and above were supposed to fire first, and then, when the range allowed, the 47mm.
3. Only the first and second gunners were allowed to fire; quartermasters, warrant officers and lieutenants were not allowed to fire during these exercises.
4. The supply of shells was carried out “as needed” for all guns through standard means - elevators, etc. In contrast to the firing of 37-mm shells, the full supply of which was supplied directly to the guns before firing began.
Preparatory night shooting. This type of exercise was significantly different from preparatory shooting due to its night-time nature.
Firing was conducted at fixed shields, several of which were deployed for each ship. The shields were deployed after dark, so the trainees had no prior knowledge of which shield was which. During firing, the searchlights alternated between shields, requiring the gunners to quickly adjust their aim to engage the suddenly illuminated target.
Learning to operate with minimal illumination was crucial here. The guns were supposed to have only a hand-held candle lantern lit. Other lighting was to be kept to a bare minimum, and it was permitted to be turned on only long enough to retrieve the shell sling from the elevator and load the gun. This was necessary not only, and not even primarily, to avoid revealing the ship, but to make the gunner's job easier—everyone knows that if, say, you sit by a fire at night, you won't be able to see anything outside the illuminated area. Similarly, a light in a casemate would interfere with the gunner's ability to see a target in the dark.
Preparatory night firing was limited by natural visibility conditions, so no sighting was performed during it. Furthermore, if loaded shells were allocated for live firing, they were used specifically for the preparatory night firing.
Approximately combat shooting. This type of training was conducted after all of the above. It had to be conducted as part of a squadron or detachment: conducting live-fire exercises by a single ship was permitted only if this requirement was completely impossible to meet and was discouraged. Furthermore, an individual tactical plan had to be developed for each live-fire exercise, bringing it as close as possible to a real combat situation. Duplication of conditions was not permitted—each live-fire exercise had to be different from the previous ones. Because of this requirement, there were no uniform conditions for live-fire exercises.
Targets could be shields, lybes, boats, or even imitation coastal fortifications. Distances could be long or short. Sighting could be done or ignored. Firing could be from one side or from both sides. The ship could fire at a single target or split its fire.
In all previous exercises, each gun was required to fire its assigned number of rounds, but during the live-fire drills, this requirement was not imposed. The essence of the exercise was that gun crews had to expend their allotted rounds with maximum accuracy in a short period of time. If they didn't manage to fire their allotted rounds, so be it. If one gun ran out of rounds much faster than the others, its crew could be declared dead and replaced by another crew with shells remaining—for example, if the designated target left their gun's arc of fire.
If in all other exercises the 47-mm guns fired separately from the others, then during the combat firing exercises they fired together, as soon as the distance allowed.
The ship's speed during live-fire exercises had to be at its maximum, but no less than 90% of the speed developed during testing. Frankly, I seriously doubt this requirement was strictly adhered to. But in some cases, it certainly was—for example, the armored cruiser Rurik conducted its second live-fire exercise in 1902 at a speed of 16 knots.
The projectiles to be used were cast iron and unloaded.
All previous exercises were conducted "without aggravating circumstances," but during live-fire exercises, all possible complications were introduced: fires, small and large water alarms, personnel losses, damage to guns and mechanisms, including dials, and so on. Each aggravating circumstance could be introduced either individually or in combination with others.
Squadron competitive shooting. Two live-fire exercises were supposed to be held annually, but squadron competition shooting could be used instead of the second. The difference between the two was very slight. Squadron competition shooting was to be conducted under the supervision of a special commission, which:
1. Approved (or independently developed) the shooting plan;
2. Conducted competitive shooting evaluation.
In addition, during squadron competitive shooting, the use of loaded cast iron shells was permitted.
Consumption of shells for combat firing
The number of shells that were supposed to be expended during combat firing of the squadron battleship Peresvet is given in the table below.
It's worth noting that the two live-fire exercises are combined into one row in the table for a reason. Six shells were allocated for two such exercises, say, for a 10-inch gun, but how many were to be expended in the first and how many in the second was determined by the exercise's plans. This means that the shell consumption wasn't necessarily three per exercise—the first live-fire exercise could have used, for example, four, and the second, two.
Conclusions
Overall, the Instructions leave a rather ambivalent impression.
The firstWhat's striking is that artillery exercises begin not with firing practice, but with familiarization with the equipment, mastering it, and learning how to load the gun and set the correct sights and rear sights. Certainly, similar exercises were conducted in the Russian Imperial Navy in general and the Pacific Ocean Squadron in particular. But the "Instructions" did not regulate them—they specifically prescribed only shell-handling exercises, which, however, practiced feeding shells, charges, and cartridges from the magazines to the guns, but not the procedure for loading the gun itself.
Accordingly, it can be assumed that artillery exercises preceding the firing were established by some other documents, such as orders and circulars for the squadron, but such a situation does not indicate a systematic approach to the training of artillerymen.
The second The "Instructions" regulate the number of combat firings, but only provide a description of practical firings, without specifying how many such firings are required per year. The esteemed N. Pakhomov, in his monograph "Ocean Cruiser Rurik," noted that such firings, due to their low cost, were conducted quite frequently, up to 20 times per year.
This seems like an excellent result, but N. Pakhomov points out that the Rurik fired 1239 37mm rounds during exercises in 1902. What does this mean?
The armored cruiser Rurik carried a total of 26 guns of 120 mm or larger caliber—4 x 8-inch, 16 x 6-inch, and 6 x 120-mm. Two gunners were required to be trained for each gun, meaning a minimum of 52 men had to be trained. In reality, of course, there were more, as quartermasters, warrant officers, and lieutenants also participated in barrel firing exercises, the latter optionally. But even without them, that only comes to 1239 / 52 = 23,83, or 23-24 shells per man per year. And considering that at least five shells per man were required to be expended during exercises, it turns out that in 1902 each gunner participated in only four or five firing exercises!
So, it appears that either there were few practical firings, or there were many, but not all of the cruiser's gunners were trained in each of these firings. Therefore, it can be concluded that the lack of guidance on the number of firings was a significant shortcoming of the "Instructions."
The third. This is the low consumption of caliber shells during combat firing, combined with the organization of combat firing, which I would risk calling flawed.
Let's take, for example, the crew of a 6-inch gun. It requires training two gunners, but only five rounds are allocated for this during the second preparatory and night firing exercises. Therefore, even if the artillery training program is fully completed, each gunner will only have to fire one or two shots during daylight and one at night. How much can you learn from this? I doubt it—after all, even just practicing the same gunnery adjustments requires at least three rounds. And then come two live-fire exercises, where each gunner will be assigned another three rounds. You'd think this would at least reinforce the skills they've already acquired... But no!
The fact that they tried to conduct mock-firing exercises under conditions close to combat would have been fine if the gunners had received good basic training beforehand, or if there had been many such mock-firing exercises. But neither was the case. Let's assume that the required ammunition had to be expended three rounds per firing exercise, with the first gunner firing the gun during the first exercise, and the second during the subsequent exercises. Three rounds might have allowed for at least some practice in zeroing. But that was a matter of luck, since the exercise conditions could have involved transferring fire from one shield to another. Or even rapid fire without zeroing. Or...
Overall, in my opinion, too much variability in live-fire exercises with limited ammunition was not the optimal way to reinforce previously acquired skills.
Let us now move on to how artillery exercises were seen after the Russo-Japanese War, in 1907.
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