Satellite images of Chinese medium- and long-range air defense missile systems
In the 1960s, China attempted, but was not entirely successful, to copy the Soviet SA-75 Dvina air defense system. In the 1970s, the first version of the HQ-2 air defense system entered production, its development largely made possible by the "disappearance" of Soviet SA-75M and anti-aircraft systems being shipped through Chinese territory to Vietnam. missiles to them. The further improvement of their own versions of the "seventy-five" was largely due to the fact that Chinese specialists became thoroughly familiar with the Soviet-made S-75 "Desna" and S-75M "Volga" air defense systems supplied to Egypt. In exchange for the Chinese weapon and a large sum of dollars, at least one SNR-75M guidance station and a batch of 13D and 20D anti-aircraft missiles were delivered to China.
Since the second half of the 1960s, China has also been attempting to develop its own medium- and long-range air defense systems. However, significant progress was only achieved after the rapprochement between Washington and Beijing in the early 1980s, fueled by anti-Soviet sentiment, and China gained access to Western technology.
In the early 1990s, deliveries of the S-300P air defense system to China began, which not only qualitatively strengthened the Chinese system Defense, but also significantly accelerated the emergence of Chinese analogues of the "three hundred." Currently, a line of domestic air defense systems based on the Russian S-300P and Buk anti-aircraft systems has been developed and is in mass production. These systems cover important defense, logistics, and administrative centers, and are actively marketed to foreign customers. According to information published in 2025, China has almost matched Russia in the number of medium- and long-range anti-aircraft systems it possesses.
First-generation anti-aircraft missile systems HQ-2B/J
For a long time, China produced its own versions of the S-75 air defense system, the most recent of which were the HQ-2B and HQ-2J modifications. In total, China built over 120 HQ-2 air defense systems and approximately 5000 surface-to-air missiles. In the past, HQ-2 air defense systems were deployed in northeast and northwest China, along the most likely flight paths of Soviet long-range bombers and around the capital. More than 20 years ago, most of the air defense systems in northwest China were eliminated, and along the border with Russia's Far East territories, permanently deployed air defense systems are no longer present.
In the first decade of the 21st century, some of the newest HQ-2 systems underwent major modernization aimed at improving their jamming immunity and increasing the number of targets that could be fired upon simultaneously.
The introduction of the new Chinese HT-223 guidance system into the system has enabled four missiles to engage two targets simultaneously and has improved resistance to jamming. However, the anti-aircraft missile battalion still has six SAMs ready for use on its launchers. Given the relatively short launch range (approximately 40 km) for a missile of this size, this is completely insufficient by modern standards.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-2 air defense missile system north of Nanjing. The image was taken in October 2012.
In the late 1990s, there were approximately 80 HQ-2 sites in China. The majority of China's air defense missile systems were deployed near Beijing, in the vicinity of Shanghai and Nanjing, around Wuhan and Shenyang, as well as on the coast of the Formosa Strait and in the northwestern regions.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-2 air defense missile system northeast of Beijing. The image was taken in November 2008.
Already in the 21st century, several modernized HQ-2s were deployed in Tibet, near the border with India.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-2 air defense missile system near the Lhasa Gonggar Air Base in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The image was taken in September 2010.
About 15 years ago, after China's own long-range HQ-9 air defense system had been brought to an acceptable level of reliability, the outdated HQ-2 systems began to be decommissioned.
Google Earth satellite image of an HQ-2 air defense missile system on the eastern outskirts of Beijing. The image was taken in April 2016.
The last HQ-2 SAMs were withdrawn from their positions in 2019 and finally decommissioned from the PLA air defense service in 2022, and their firing positions were used to deploy next-generation anti-aircraft systems.
A Google Earth satellite image shows an HQ-2 air defense missile system storage facility near Xi'an. The image was taken in December 2019.
HQ-12 anti-aircraft missile systems
Although development of the HQ-2 SAM system continued until the mid-1990s, it became clear by the early 1970s that the liquid-propellant SAM system, based on technical solutions from the mid-1950s, did not fully meet modern requirements and had little prospect for further development. The Chinese military needed a multi-channel mobile system with solid-propellant missiles that did not require regular, labor-intensive and dangerous refuelling with toxic and flammable liquid propellants.
In the late 1970s, China began developing a medium-range air defense system with solid-fuel missiles to replace the aging HQ-2. However, creating a solid-fuel SAM with the same range and altitude capability as a liquid-fueled missile proved to be a formidable challenge. The first prototype, known as the KS-1, was unveiled to the public at the 1991 Paris Air Show. This system, equipped with solid-fuel radio-command SAMs, utilized the SJ-202B missile guidance system, which was part of the HQ-2B SAM system. However, the KS-1's performance proved to be below expectations, and it was not deployed after military trials.
Nevertheless, this project was not abandoned in China, and despite the fact that the PLA Air Defense Forces acquired Russian S-300P family air defense systems, trials of the improved KS-1A air defense system began in 2001. According to Western sources, this system was accepted into service in 2007 under the designation HQ-12.
Guidance station and mobile launchers of the NQ-12 air defense missile system
Initially, the HQ-12 SAM system used the HT-223 guidance system with a tracking range of 50 kilometers and a detection range of 90 kilometers for large targets. Later, a variant was developed with the H-200 multifunctional radar, with a tracking range of 70 kilometers and a detection range of 110 kilometers.
Multifunctional radar H-200
The HQ-12 surface-to-air missile battalion includes a missile detection and guidance radar, a mobile command post with communications equipment, four mobile launchers with a total of 8 ready-to-use SAMs, and 6 transporter-loader vehicles with 24 missiles.
Aerial targets are engaged by the GYD-1 radio-guided surface-to-air missile. With a launch weight of 900 kg, the missile is capable of engaging aerial targets at ranges of 7-45 km. Target altitudes range from 0,5-20 km. Maximum target speed is 750 m/s, and overload is 5 g.
The guidance station enables the simultaneous engagement of three targets with six missiles. The later KS-1S modification has a maximum firing range of up to 65 km and a maximum engagement altitude of up to 25 km.
The HQ-12 air defense system wasn't mass-produced by Chinese standards. Just over 20 divisional systems were produced, half of which were delivered to foreign customers: Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Turkmenistan.
Google Earth satellite image of the HQ-12 air defense missile system in Guangzhou. The image was taken in September 2021.
Apparently, most of the PLA's HQ-12 air defense systems are not on permanent alert. Only six fixed sites were identified in the south and southeast of the country and in the vicinity of Beijing.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-12 air defense system north of Shantou. The image was taken in May 2021.
All HQ-12 SAMs are located in the former HQ-2 positions and are in addition to the longer-range HQ-9 SAMs deployed nearby.
We were able to find a high-quality image of the HQ-12 position, 150 kilometers northeast of Beijing. The satellite image shows three anti-aircraft missile launchers covered by tarps.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-12 air defense missile system northeast of Beijing. The image was taken in September 2025.
Russian-made S-300PMU/PMU-1/PMU-2 anti-aircraft missile systems
From the 1990s to the 2000s, China was a major importer of Russian air defense systems. In 1993, China received four divisional sets of S-300PMU air defense missile systems. The S-300PMU air defense missile system is an export version of the S-300PS with towed launchers. In terms of firing range and the number of targets it could simultaneously engage, the S-300PMU air defense system was significantly superior to the Chinese HQ-2B/J air defense systems, which at that time formed the backbone of China's point air defense. Importantly, the 5V55R solid-fuel SAMs required no maintenance for 10 years.
Initially, the S-300PMU air defense systems were stationed at airbases within Beijing. However, in the late 1990s, they were moved outside the city, deployed on converted sites that previously housed China's first-generation HQ-2 air defense systems.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an S-300PMU air defense system east of Beijing. The image was taken in April 2016.
Given the assigned hardware lifespan and warranty periods for the 5V55 (V-500) SAMs, as well as the lack of information about any repairs, the S-300PMU system has most likely already been decommissioned by the PLA. Judging by satellite imagery, all existing S-300PMU SAMs and their associated radar systems were withdrawn from their positions after 2022, are in storage, and are being used for training purposes.
Google Earth satellite image showing elements of the S-300PMU and HQ-2 air defense missile systems at the PLA Air Defense Training Center near Xi'an. The image was taken in March 2025.
Following test firings at the "Site No. 72" range in a desert region of Gansu Province in northwestern China, Chinese military leaders decided to enter into a new contract. In 1994, another Russian-Chinese agreement was signed for the purchase of eight battalions of the improved S-300PMU-1 (the export version of the S-300PM air defense system).
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an S-300PMU-1 air defense missile system near the coast in eastern Shanghai. The image was taken in July 2024.
To provide target designation for the S-300P air defense missile system, the PLA used three-coordinate radars with 64N6E phased array antennas, operating in the 2,9–3,3 GHz frequency range and having an instrumented detection range of 300 km.
Google Earth satellite image of a 64N6E radar on the coast of eastern Shanghai. The image was taken in April 2018.
Another hallmark of the S-300P family of air defense systems are the 40V6M towers, clearly visible on satellite images, designed to raise the antennas of the illumination and guidance radars, as well as low-altitude detectors.
Since 2021, the S-300PMU-1 air defense missile systems deployed on the coast have been gradually withdrawn from their positions, which, apparently, is also due to wear and tear and the need for repairs.
In 2003, Beijing announced its intention to acquire the improved S-300PMU-2 anti-aircraft systems (the export version of the S-300PM2 air defense system). The first battalions were delivered to the customer in 2007.
ZRS-300PMU-2 on the landfill in Gansu Province
With the adoption of the S-300PMU-2, the PLA Air Defense Forces acquired limited capabilities to intercept operational-tactical ballistic missiles.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an S-300PMU-2 air defense missile system with attached radar assets north of Quanzhou. The image was taken in January 2021.
Since 1993, the PLA Air Defense Missile Forces have received four S-300PMU battalions, eight S-300PMU-1 battalions, and 12 S-300PMU-2 battalions. Each battalion set included six launchers with four anti-aircraft missiles. A total of 24 S-300PMU/PMU-1/PMU-2 battalion sets with 144 launchers were delivered to China.
In April 2015, it was announced that a contract had been signed to supply two regimental sets (four S-400 air defense missile systems) to China, and in early 2020, it was announced that Russia had fulfilled its obligations. Apparently, this included the main components: self-propelled launchers, radar systems, mobile command posts, power supply, and auxiliary equipment. In July 2020, Sohu reported that Russia had not fully delivered the ordered anti-aircraft missiles, citing difficulties caused by the coronavirus outbreak and logistical issues. However, all S-400 components specified in the intergovernmental agreement were subsequently accepted by the customer.
There is no reliable information about the deployment of four S-400 divisions in China, and these anti-aircraft systems have not been found at known positions or training grounds. Several sources claimed that the S-400s were deployed to areas bordering India and to disputed islands in the South China Sea, but this information has not been confirmed by objective means.
Located 20 kilometers north of the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in Gansu Province is an air defense missile test site known as Site 72, which has historically tested all of China's medium- and long-range air defense missile systems, as well as the Russian S-300PMU/PMU-1/PMU-2.
Google Earth satellite image of the air defense launch sites in Gansu Province. The image was taken in July 2025.
In December 2018, test firings of the S-400 air defense missile system were conducted at Site No. 72. However, the S-400 could not be reliably identified in publicly available satellite imagery.
Anti-aircraft missile system HQ-9
Almost immediately after Chinese specialists had the opportunity to study the S-300PMU air defense system, the PRC began work on creating its own air defense system of the same class. However, one should not think that long-range air defense systems with solid-fuel missiles were an absolutely unknown topic for Chinese specialists. In the second half of the 1980s, China had developed effective recipes for solid rocket fuel, and cooperation with Western companies allowed it to advance electronics. Chinese intelligence made a significant contribution.
In the United States, it is generally accepted that the HQ-9 air defense system's control equipment borrowed heavily from the Patriot long-range air defense system. American experts have noted similarities between the Chinese HT-233 multifunctional radar and the AN/MPQ-53 radar, which is part of the Patriot air defense system.
Multifunctional radar station HT-233
At the same time, there is no doubt that the designers of the China Academy of Defense Technology spied a number of technical solutions in the Soviet S-300P system. The first modification of the HQ-9 SAM system used missiles with command guidance with radar sighting through the missile. Correction commands are transmitted to the missile via a two-way radio channel by the illumination and guidance radar. The same scheme was used on the 300V5R SAMs supplied to China along with the S-55PMU.
In addition to the HT-223 multi-functional tracking and targeting radar and a mobile command post, the HQ-9 battalion can be assigned a Type 120 low-altitude radar and a Type 305B search station, created on the basis of the YLC-2 standby mode radar.
In 1997, a pre-production prototype was demonstrated to the general public. Officially, the specifications of the HQ-9 anti-aircraft system, intended for trial use in the military, were not disclosed. Apparently, the HQ-9's initial performance was inferior to the S-300PMU-1/PMU-2 air defense systems purchased from Russia.
In 2001, the serial version, known as the HQ-9A, entered service. Currently, an improved modification, the HQ-9B, is being produced, featuring enhanced anti-missile capabilities and capable of intercepting ballistic missiles with a range of up to 500 km. The HQ-9C model utilizes extended-range SAMs with an active radar seeker. The munitions complement also includes a missile capable of passively homing in on a radar source, enhancing its capabilities against AWACS aircraft. EW. Chinese representatives stated that due to the use of high-speed processors, the speed of data processing and issuance of guidance commands on modern modifications has increased several times compared to the first model of the HQ-9. According to information published by official Chinese media, during the firing range, the Chinese HQ-9S/V air defense missile systems with a firing range of up to 250 km demonstrated capabilities not inferior to the Russian S-300PMU-2 system.
As of 2025, approximately fifty HQ-9 divisional systems of various modifications had been built for domestic use and export. In addition to the PLA, this multi-channel long-range anti-aircraft system is operated by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and Morocco.
Currently, over forty HQ-9 air defense systems are deployed in China. They are often based in upgraded positions where HQ-2 air defense systems were previously deployed. The coordinates of the old positions are well known, making it easy to locate the new long-range systems.
Google Earth satellite image of an HQ-9 air defense system at a reconstructed HQ-2 site north of Beijing. The image was taken in April 2023.
Satellite images show that the concrete positions contain hangars where launchers and other equipment of the anti-aircraft missile battalion can be protected from the elements and undergo maintenance. Often, the launchers and other equipment are covered with camouflage nets, which do not make the battalion's equipment less visible but do make it more difficult to identify.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-9 air defense missile system northwest of Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province. The image was taken in January 2025.
Information about the deployment of HQ-9 air defense systems is occasionally published in Chinese media. This led to the discovery of a position near the city of Xi'an, home to a major aircraft manufacturer, Xian Aircraft Industrial Corporation, which specializes in the production of medium and heavy military transport aircraft.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-9 air defense missile system near Xi'an. The image was taken in February 2025.
Chinese HQ-9s have now replaced the Russian-made S-300PMU air defense systems around the Chinese capital. Beijing's air defense belt consists of more than two dozen HQ-9s.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-9 air defense system northwest of Beijing. The image was taken in February 2021.
However, it's not worth thinking that HQ-9s are constantly on combat alert only at fixed, well-equipped sites. According to a set schedule, anti-aircraft battalions practice deployment to alternate positions and are transferred to training ranges located in the desert regions of northwest China, where they conduct test firing exercises.
Google Earth satellite image of an HQ-9 air defense missile system field position southeast of Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province. The image was taken in March 2022.
The modernized HQ-9 air defense missile systems, along with the J-11 (based on the Su-27SK) and J-16 (based on the Su-30MKK) fighters, have been used as a tool of pressure on India since 2014.
SAM position in Tibet
Chinese long-range surface-to-air missile systems protect airfields where fighter jets are based. At times, temporary HQ-9 SAM sites were positioned such that their anti-aircraft missiles could strike air targets deep within Indian airspace.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of an HQ-9 air defense missile system near the Lhasa Gonggar Air Base in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The image was taken in September 2019.
Apparently, the PLA command has placed its bets on the HQ-9 as its primary long-range air defense system, and as a result, these anti-aircraft systems will continue to be improved, and we can expect their wider distribution both in China and in other countries.
HQ-16 family of anti-aircraft missile systems
In 2011, the PLA received a new medium-range air defense system, the HQ-16A. Some experts claimed that Russian developments in the Buk air defense system were used in its development. Externally, the missile used in the HQ-16A strongly resembles the Soviet 9M38M1 SAM. In fact, the HQ-16 SAM system is a conglomerate of technologies and technical solutions borrowed by Chinese specialists from the Russian Buk and S-300P air defense systems.
The SAM with a semi-active radar homing head weighs 615 kg and is 5,2 meters long. The maximum firing range of the early modification was 40 km, and the speed was up to 1200 m/s. This Chinese SAM is capable of intercepting aerial targets flying at altitudes from 15 m to 18 km. The kill probability of a single SAM against cruise missiles flying at an altitude of 50 meters and a speed of 300 m/s is 0,6, while against a MiG-21-type target at the same speed and an altitude of 3-7 km, the kill probability reaches 0,85. An improved version, designated HQ-16V, has a firing range of up to 70 km against subsonic targets flying at altitudes of 7-12 km. It is reported that the HQ-16V SAM is capable of engaging ballistic missiles, but the kill zone for such targets does not exceed 15 km.
The anti-aircraft battery includes 4 SPUs (6 SAMs in a TPK) and a missile illumination and guidance station with a target acquisition range of up to 80 km. The actions of the anti-aircraft batteries are controlled from the divisional command post, which receives information from a three-coordinate all-round radar with a detection range of up to 150 km. There are three firing batteries in the division. The ammunition load of the anti-aircraft division is 72 ready-to-use SAMs.
All components of the HQ-16A are mounted on a Taian TA5350 all-terrain wheeled chassis, and the missile is launched vertically from a sealed transport and launch container. The anti-aircraft missile battalion can travel at speeds of up to 85 km/h on paved roads, with a range of up to 1000 km.
Apparently, the PLA's HQ-16 air defense systems are designed to provide air defense for large troop formations, but are also used to provide continuous cover for important installations. Unlike the Russian Buk-family of military systems, the Chinese HQ-16A air defense system is better suited for long-term combat duty while covering stationary installations. Thus, conceptually, the HQ-16 air defense system is closer to the Buk-M1 air defense system, which is capable of moving off-road in a single column with tanks and BPM, but to the latest Russian S-350 air defense system, intended to replace the S-300PS.
HQ-16 air defense systems are primarily used by air defense units stationed in remote areas. For example, in January 2021, reports emerged that the 85th Air Defense Brigade of China's Air Defense Force, headquartered in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, had been equipped with these systems. However, no permanent position could be found in the area.
Another 84th Air Defense Brigade, which includes three divisions armed with HQ-16 systems, is stationed in Urumqi, the administrative center of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.
Google Earth satellite image: An HQ-16 air defense missile system deployed on the northern outskirts of Urumqi at the former HQ-2 site. The self-propelled launchers are covered in camouflage nets. The image was taken in July 2022.
An HQ-16 anti-aircraft missile system with a launcher in combat position was discovered southeast of the city of Chengdu at a converted position where an HQ-2 air defense system was previously located.
Google Earth satellite image showing the position of the HQ-16 SAM system southeast of Chengdu. The image was taken in February 2024.
In 2017, Pakistan accepted the first battalion of LY-80 (the export version of the HQ-16A). The Pakistani LY-80 air defense system was publicly unveiled in 2018.
In 2019, Pakistani media published a report on the firing of LY-80 air defense systems at a training ground near Karachi.
Google Earth satellite image of an LY-80 air defense missile system at an air defense base in the outskirts of Karachi. The image was taken in January 2018.
During the test firing, several radio-controlled targets were hit, after which the LY-80 air defense system was officially declared combat-ready and placed on combat duty.
Google Earth satellite image: elements of the LY-80 air defense system at an air defense base in the suburbs of Karachi. Photo taken in November 2022
In 2021, Pakistan acquired another battalion of LY-80EV air defense systems (an export version of the HQ-16B) with a firing range of up to 70 km.
Anti-aircraft missile system HQ-22
A further development of the HQ-12 medium-range air defense system was the HQ-22 complex with more advanced control and guidance systems, with long-range missiles in transport and launch containers, combining a command and semi-active radar homing system.
According to Chinese promotional materials, the HQ-22 air defense system is capable of engaging aerodynamic targets at ranges of over 150 km. The system's effective altitude is 0,5-27 km. The system is claimed to possess certain anti-missile capabilities. A battery, comprising three self-propelled launchers, is capable of simultaneously firing twelve missiles at six targets. As of the end of 2022, approximately 10 HQ-22 systems had been built, some of which were exported. Serbia and Thailand have purchased the export version of the HQ-22 air defense system, known as the FK-3. These countries received three systems each between 2020 and 2022.
A Google Earth satellite image shows components of the HQ-22 air defense system among other examples on display at Airshow China 2022 at Zhuhai Airport. The image was taken in September 2022.
The HQ-22 air defense system was first unveiled at Airshow China 2016. Elements of this system were also on display in Zhuhai in September 2021.
Google Earth satellite image: Possible position of an HQ-22 air defense missile system north of Beijing. The image was taken in October 2021.
There is information that since 2019, one battalion has been in experimental operation at a position in the mountainous terrain north of Beijing. After some time, I was able to locate a position that matched the characteristics. However, due to the poor quality of the imagery, it is impossible to definitively identify the SAM system.
To be continued ...
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