Search and identification of S-300P and MIM-104 Patriot long-range air defense systems on satellite images
The most famous and fighting Russian and American anti-aircraft missile Long-range systems include the S-300P and MIM-104 Patriot, which are in service not only in Russia and the United States, but also in two dozen other countries. Later modifications of these Soviet and American air defense systems acquired the ability to counter ballistic missiles and became role models. Many of their technical solutions can be traced back to the designs of air defense systems developed in China, North Korea, and Iran.
During peacetime, the "Trekhsotka" and "Patriot" missile systems are typically deployed at well-equipped permanent positions, the coordinates of which are readily available. American expeditionary forces in other countries often rely on batteries deployed near major airbases to provide cover from ballistic missiles and air strikes, and these positions are relatively easy to locate. S-300P air defense systems are also frequently deployed within the secure perimeters of airfields, near the permanent deployment sites of large military units or strategically important facilities. However, it can sometimes be very difficult to distinguish an S-300P from an S-400, or a Patriot PAC-2 from a PAC-3, in satellite imagery. Often, identification of a particular system is achieved through indirect signs, as well as through information published in open sources regarding specific models in service in a given country.
Search and identification of the S-300P air defense missile system on satellite images
Today, the S-300PT/PS/PM anti-aircraft missile systems are the most widely used target systems Defense Long-range air defense systems in the post-Soviet space. These air defense systems, with towed or self-propelled launchers, have distinctive external features. When the cylindrical launchers, typically painted silver, are in their transport position and not vertically mounted, they are very visible from above, making them much easier to spot on satellite imagery.
If necessary, an S-300P battalion can quickly redeploy to a new position. For example, the self-propelled version of the S-300PS, with launchers mounted on a MAZ-543M chassis and accepted into service in 1982, can deploy from a march in five minutes.
Self-propelled launchers 5P85S and 5P85D from the S-300PS air defense system
The first modification of the "three hundredth" S-300PT family, which appeared in 1978, used towed launchers.
Towed launcher 5P85-1 from the S-300PT air defense system in transport position
For a long time, the S-300PT and S-300PS were used in parallel by the Soviet Air Defense Forces, and the same missiles were used in their ammunition complements. After the collapse of the USSR, S-300PT/PS air defense systems remained in service in Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, along with Russia. As part of the alliance at the beginning of the 21st century, our country transferred three S-300PT-1 battalions to Armenia, which now provide air defense for the republic's capital, Yerevan, against air strikes.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PT-1 position on the eastern outskirts of Yerevan. The image was taken in May 2024.
The modernized S-300PT-1 differs from the earlier S-300PTs in that it has a modified multifunctional radar and control center, which makes it possible to use longer-range anti-aircraft missiles compared to the original version.
Until recently, three S-300PT-1 battalions were on combat duty in the Republic of Belarus. There are reports that the outdated anti-aircraft systems deployed near Minsk are being replaced by new S-400s.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PT-1 position located between the villages of Glushintsy and Kovshovo, west of Minsk. The image was taken in September 2020.
As of early 2022, at least twelve S-300PT-1 divisions were stationed in Ukraine in the vicinity of Kyiv, Kharkiv, Lviv, Mykolaiv, and Dnipro.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PT-1 position south of the Dnieper River. The image was taken in March 2020.
More numerous in the post-Soviet space are the S-300PS air defense systems, which are in service in Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine among the former Soviet republics.
Approximately 15 years ago, Armenia received several divisional S-300PS systems from Russia free of charge. Positions for the self-propelled "300s" were established in the mountains of the southeast of the country and in the territory of the unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. The delivery of long-range self-propelled anti-aircraft systems to Armenia followed Azerbaijan's acquisition of two S-300PMU-2 "Favorit" anti-aircraft missile systems.
Google Earth satellite image: The position of an Armenian S-300PS missile system near the town of Goris in the eastern Syunik region. The image was taken in October 2016.
Currently, the majority of Armenian S-300PS air defense systems have been destroyed or disabled as a result of fire from Azerbaijani air attack weapons and technical malfunctions.
Several S-300PS battalions were transferred to the anti-aircraft missile forces of the Republic of Belarus during the division of Soviet military assets. In 2005, Moscow and Minsk reached an agreement to transfer four S-300PS battalion systems as part of the creation of a unified air defense system. Prior to this, the hardware of the 5V55RM SAMs and SAMs underwent refurbishment and service life extension.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position north of Minsk. The image was taken in April 2019.
In 2016, it was reported that four more S-300PS systems had been transferred to Belarus. According to information published in Russian media, these anti-aircraft systems had previously served in the Moscow region and the Far East and were donated to Belarus after the Russian Aerospace Forces received new S-400 long-range air defense systems.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position west of Grodno. The image was taken in September 2023.
As of 2022, there were eight S-300PS air defense systems deployed in Belarus. These positions are located around Minsk, near Brest, west of Grodno, and north of Polotsk.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position north of Polotsk. The image was taken in June 2022.
Two divisions stationed 20 kilometers north of Polotsk are using an old S-200VM air defense system position. The coordinates of the fixed positions of the Belarusian S-300PT/PS systems are available in open sources. However, the divisions stationed near Brest and in the vicinity of Grodno periodically move into the field and change positions. Specifically, part of the runway and taxiways at the Luninets reserve airbase are used as a deployment site.
Ten years ago, the Kazakhstan Air Defense Forces had four S-300PS anti-aircraft battalions. However, due to a shortage of serviceable anti-aircraft missiles, combat duty was carried out with a reduced complement, typically with two to four self-propelled launchers on duty.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position west of the Shymkent airbase. The image was taken in September 2018.
In 2016, as part of its CSTO alliance, Russia donated five divisional S-300PS systems to Kazakhstan, along with regimental command posts, radar systems, and 170 5V55RM SAMs. With technical support from the Almaz-Antey defense concern, the acquired air defense systems underwent modernization and refurbishment at the SKTB Granit service center, located in the Almaty suburb of Burundai.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position west of Karaganda. The image was taken in June 2024.
As of early 2024, two S-300PS battalions were on combat duty east and west of Astana. One S-300PS battalion has been stationed at a former S-75M3 air defense missile system position near Karaganda since April 2023. One battalion is stationed in the Turkestan region of southern Kazakhstan, near the Shymkent airbase. Three battalions cover the former capital, Almaty. Another battalion is located in Almaty, on the premises of the Military Engineering Institute of Radioelectronics and Communications of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
By February 2022, 10-12 S-300PS battalions were deployed across Ukraine, with several more systems undergoing repairs and in storage. S-300PS positions were located near Kyiv, near Nikopol, east of Nova Kakhovka, north of Kherson, east of the town of Oleshky (at the former S-200VM position), around Odesa, and east of Pervomaysk.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position north of Nikopol. The firing position contains four self-propelled launchers with transport and launch containers in launch position. Sixteen more self-propelled launchers are parked near the firing position, with transport and launch containers with SAMs stored nearby. The image was taken in October 2021.
The image above shows the largest concentration of Ukrainian self-propelled launchers from the S-300PS air defense system. Their number corresponds to almost three battalions. Judging by satellite imagery, the 5P85S and 5P85D self-propelled launchers have been stored here since 2013.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PS position east of Alyoshki. The image was taken in November 2021.
During the rapid Russian army offensive in February 2022, several Ukrainian "three-hundred" tanks failed to evacuate in time and were either captured or destroyed. This fate befell a division deployed since 2015 in the Kherson region, east of the town of Oleshky, at a former S-200VM air defense missile system position.
Google Earth satellite image: the position of the destroyed Ukrainian S-300PS air defense system east of the town of Aleshky. The image was taken in September 2023.
Currently, the majority of Ukrainian S-300PS air defense systems that were not lost during combat are inoperable due to technical reasons and the lack of serviceable anti-aircraft missiles.
Unlike Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, Azerbaijan did not receive the S-300P multi-channel air defense system during the division of Soviet military assets. Approximately 20 years ago, in connection with the upcoming write-off of the obsolete and worn-out first-generation S-75M3 and S-200VM air defense systems, Azerbaijan's top military and political leadership became concerned about acquiring modern air defense systems. In 2007, Baku and Moscow signed a $300 million contract for the purchase of two S-300PMU-2 Favorit air defense systems, each with eight towed launchers and 200 48N6E2 SAMs. Equipment deliveries began in the summer of 2010 and were completed in 2012. The crews of the long-range air defense systems supplied to Azerbaijan underwent training in Russia.
Since 2015, one S-300PMU-2 division has been on combat duty in the western suburbs of Baku, near the village of Kobu.
Google Earth satellite image: the position of an Azerbaijani S-300PMU-2 air defense system in the western suburbs of Baku, near the village of Kobu. The image was taken in February 2020.
New positions were erected for the Azerbaijani "Favorites," where all the necessary infrastructure, including living quarters and shelters for personnel, was built from scratch.
One new S-300PMU-2 position was also discovered 10 km east of the Azerbaijani capital, near the village of Surakhani.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PMU-2 air defense missile system position 10 kilometers east of the Azerbaijani capital, near the town of Surakhani. The image was taken in August 2018.
Azerbaijan's S-300PMU-2 systems are expected to remain in service for another two decades. However, to achieve this, Baku will have to reach an agreement with Moscow on the repair and modernization of its anti-aircraft systems.
From non-CIS countries, S-300P air defense systems were officially supplied to Bulgaria, Greece, Iran, China, Syria, and Czechoslovakia.
In the second half of 1989, shortly before the liquidation of the Warsaw Pact, one divisional set of S-300PMU (export modification of S-300PS) was delivered to Bulgaria.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PMU air defense missile system position west of Sofia. Image taken in July 2023.
The SAM system was delivered along with a 19Zh6 (ST-68U) three-dimensional alert radar. Since then, the multi-channel anti-aircraft system, along with its attached surveillance radar, has been on combat alert at a position west of Sofia. Currently, the Bulgarian S-300PMU SAM system is in the final stages of its life cycle and is extremely worn out. Satellite images show that only two self-propelled launchers carry the anti-aircraft missiles.
In the late 1990s, tensions arose in Russian-Turkish relations over the possible delivery of S-300PMU-1 air defense systems to Cyprus. In fact, Greece was the customer for the Russian anti-aircraft system, and to avoid a strong reaction from Turkey, a regimental complement (two battalions) of S-300PMU-1s were delivered to the island of Crete. However, unlike other S-300P operators, the Greek armed forces did not deploy these systems on combat duty; their crews conducted several firing exercises and participated in exercises in which aviation NATO countries and Israel learned to suppress Russian-style air defense systems.
Currently, the S-300PMU-1 air defense missile systems on the island of Crete are stored in the vicinity of the Kazantzakis airfield and are not on combat duty.
Google Earth satellite image: elements of the S-300PMU-1 air defense missile system on the outskirts of Kazantzakis airfield. The image was taken in February 2025.
Launchers, multifunctional illumination and guidance radars, mobile command posts, communications equipment, and diesel generators are kept indoors most of the time and are only brought out for crew training. 40V6M towers for low-altitude detectors and RPN antenna posts are stored outdoors.
In 2016, the first S-300PMU-2 battalion was deployed near Tehran. Iran received a total of four S-300PMU-2 battalions.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PMU-2 air defense missile system position in the southern suburbs of Tehran. The image was taken in September 2021.
Unlike other countries, the exact locations of the Iranian "three-hundred" were not published in open sources, and they had to be searched for on satellite images in the vicinity of military bases and airfields.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PMU-2 air defense missile system position southeast of Tehran. Image taken in December 2021.
As of early June 2025, two S-300PMU-2 divisions were covering the capital region of Iran. What became of them afterward is unknown.
A separate publication will be devoted to Chinese anti-aircraft missile systems, and therefore I will not dwell on the fairly numerous S-300P air defense systems available in the PRC.
In the past, various Syrian targets were subject to regular missile and air strikes by the United States and Israel. To significantly strengthen Syria's air defense system, in 2018, our country transferred four divisional S-300PM2 systems, taken from the Russian Aerospace Forces, to the Syrian Arab Republic. However, this subsequently had no impact on the effectiveness or intensity of Israeli airstrikes.
Google Earth satellite image: S-300PM2 air defense missile system position 20 km northwest of Masyaf. The image was taken in April 2022.
According to information published in foreign media, two S-300PM2 air defense missile systems were deployed on the high ground northwest of the city of Masyaf in Hama province. Previously, S-200VM and S-75M air defense systems were deployed in this area. Until December 2024, the Syrian S-300PM2s provided southeastern coverage of the Russian Khmeimim Air Base, the Tartus Logistics Base, and the port of Latakia.
Google Earth satellite image: the position of another S-300PM2 battalion 20 km northwest of Masyaf. The image was taken in April 2022.
Satellite images show Syrian S-300PM2 missile systems deployed in temporary positions in the area. The S-300PM2 SAM system's 40V6M towers, equipped with RPN antenna posts and 5N66M low-altitude detectors, were also delivered to the area. Several Russian sources claimed that the S-300M also defended Damascus from Israeli airstrikes, but there is no evidence of this. It is possible that the other two battalions served as a strategic reserve for the Syrian air defense system and were hidden in reinforced concrete shelters at military bases. After President Bashar al-Assad fled the country, the S-300PM2 SAM systems, along with their attached radars, command and control systems, and communications equipment, were evacuated from their positions and, according to unconfirmed reports, transported to Russia.
Czechoslovakia received one S-300PMU battalion and a 19Zh6 radar around the same time as Bulgaria. During the division of military assets following the "velvet divorce" with the Czech Republic in 1992, this anti-aircraft system was transferred to Slovakia and deployed 7 km west of Nitra. The Slovak S-300PMU battalion not only provided eastern coverage for the capital, Bratislava, but was also used for training at the Bulgarian Shabla training ground, where NATO combat aircraft learned to penetrate air defense systems built on Soviet and Russian-made systems. By 2022, the main components of the Slovak SAM system had reached a critical point of deterioration, and the anti-aircraft missiles had exceeded their warranty periods several times. In April 2022, Slovakia saved on the disposal of the "three hundred" by transferring the obsolete anti-aircraft system to Ukraine.
It's no secret that the Russian S-400 air defense system is essentially an evolutionary development of the S-300P family and was originally designated S-300PM3. Improvements to these air defense missile systems, which share common family traits, will continue through the introduction of new radar and combat control systems, as well as longer-range and more maneuverable air defense missiles. This means that systems descended from the S-300P will be visible on satellite imagery for several decades to come.
Search and identification of the MIM-104 Patriot air defense system on satellite images
The only long-range air defense system in service with the US Army is the MIM-104 Patriot. As of 2024, the US Army's air defense units had up to 80 PAC-2 and PAC-3 systems. Approximately 10 more Patriots have been delivered to foreign customers. More than 000 anti-aircraft missiles have been produced for US and foreign air defense systems.
MIM-104 Patriot air defense missile system launchers
Patriot air defense systems are not permanently deployed in the United States. They are deployed only for training and test firings.
A Google Earth satellite image shows Patriot missile launchers deployed during exercises at a site near Fort Bliss. The image was taken in May 2018.
A Patriot battery includes: an AN/MSQ-104 command post, an AN/MPQ-53 (for PAC-2) or AN/MPQ-65 (for PAC-3) multi-function radar, up to eight (usually five to six) self-propelled or towed launchers with four MIM-104 C/D/E SAMs on each, AN/MJQ-20 power supplies, communications equipment and antenna-mast devices, transport and loading vehicles, a mobile maintenance point, tractors and transport vehicles.
A Google Earth satellite image shows Patriot air defense system command, power, communications, and radar assets deployed during an exercise near Fort Bliss. The image was taken in May 2018.
Unused systems of this type are stored at military bases at Fort Bliss (New Mexico), Fort Hood (Texas) and Fort Sill (Oklahoma).
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense system at Fort Bliss. The image was taken in February 2025.
The training center, located at Fort Sill, trains foreign crews for air defense systems supplied for export.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense system at Fort Sill. The image was taken in March 2022.
Besides the United States, Patriot air defense systems are in service in Egypt, Germany, Greece, Jordan, Spain, Qatar, Kuwait, the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates, Poland, the Republic of Korea, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Ukraine, Sweden, and Japan. A contract for the supply of several batteries has also been signed with Switzerland and Morocco.
Since the spring of 2022, Patriot air defense missile systems have been deployed on combat alert in Poland and Romania. However, there are no recent satellite images of their deployment areas, and a significant portion of Polish military installations are blurred.
Approximately 30 years ago, Greece received its first Patriot air defense system. A total of six PAK-2/GEM-T variants of the system were delivered to the country. Currently, five Patriots are deployed in fixed firing positions in the country. Media reports indicate that one system was sold to Saudi Arabia with US permission.
Google Earth satellite image showing the Patriot air defense missile system position at the Skyros airbase. The image was taken in August 2024.
Although the images of Patriot missile positions deployed in Greece are low-resolution, they show that the Greek military considered how to reduce vulnerability when positioning them. The launchers are spaced approximately 150 meters apart and approximately 300 meters apart from other SAM system components.
In Turkey, one Patriot system is permanently deployed at Incirlik Air Base in the Adana province. This air base is notable for its storage of American B61 thermonuclear bombs.
Google Earth satellite image showing the Patriot air defense missile system's position at Incirlik Air Base. The image was taken in February 2023.
In the past, the base's air defense was provided by Turkish Rapier short-range air defense systems, but after the start of the civil war in Syria, Patriot PAC-3 MSEs belonging to the US Army were deployed here.
About 20 years ago, Germany sold most of its Patriot PAC-2 batteries to Jordan, the Republic of Korea, and Japan, and the military installations where they were deployed and stored were privatized to save money.
A Google Earth satellite image shows Patriot air defense missile system components in storage near the village of Fuchstal in Bavaria. The image was taken in January 2009.
As of 2024, Germany had five Patriot PAC-3 batteries. However, German Patriots have not been in continuous combat duty since 2006.
In 2024, the Netherlands had three Patriot PAC-3 batteries, but they were not fully operational. Several Dutch Patriot launchers with anti-aircraft missiles were transferred to Ukraine.
Google Earth satellite imagery showing Patriot air defense system components at Volkel Air Base. The image was taken in July 2019.
Two Patriot PAC-3 batteries are still on duty at Volkel Air Base in North Brabant, where US tactical thermonuclear bombs are reportedly stored.
Google Earth satellite image of Patriot air defense missile launchers at Volkel Air Base. The image was taken in August 2018.
Patriots operated by the Royal Saudi Air Defense are part of the national Peace Shield air and missile defense system, considered one of the most powerful in the Middle East. The Saudis operate a total of 18 Patriot PAC-2 and PAC-3 batteries.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense system in Riyadh. The image was taken in August 2025.
Until recently, Saudi Arabia's Patriots were the most combat-ready. They were used, with varying success, to intercept ballistic and cruise missiles, as well as drones, which Yemeni Houthis used to attack oil fields, logistics hubs, major military bases and administrative centers of Saudi Arabia.
Google Earth satellite image showing Patriot air defense missile system position south of Tabuk Air Base. The image was taken in December 2025.
Patriot air defense systems deployed in Saudi Arabia have well-prepared positions with reinforced concrete shelters. In the desert, these positions are easily visible from above and easy to locate, even without precise coordinates.
Another major Middle Eastern operator of Patriot air defense systems is the Kingdom of Qatar. This relatively small country had 11 PAC-3 batteries by 2018.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense missile system position near Al Udeid Air Base, southwest of Doha. The image was taken in December 2022.
The United Arab Emirates acquired nine PAC-2 and PAC-3 batteries by 2019.
Google Earth satellite image showing the Patriot missile system's position east of Abu Dhabi Airport. The image was taken in November 2025.
In the UAE, Patriots are concentrated around Abu Dhabi, as well as in the vicinity of Al Dhafra and Al Minhad airbases.
Kuwait purchased four Patriot PAC-3 air defense systems from the United States. Three systems are deployed near the capital, Kuwait City. Another is located 7 km south of the city of Al-Jahra.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense missile system position on the outskirts of Kuwait City. The image was taken in February 2025.
Japan has the largest number of Patriot missile systems among Asian countries. The first Patriot PAC-2 battery was deployed in the Land of the Rising Sun in 1991.
Launcher M902 Japanese air defense system Patriot PAC-3
According to information published in Japanese sources, six missile groups currently operate 24 PAC-2/PAC-3 surface-to-air missile batteries, comprising 120 launchers. Since 2014, the Patriot PAC-3s have been gradually upgraded to PAC-3 MSEs.
A Google Earth satellite image shows a Patriot air defense missile system position on the southern outskirts of Kurume City in Fukuoka Prefecture, northwestern Kyushu Island. The image was taken in November 2024.
No more than 20 batteries are deployed in Japan. One or two air defense systems are constantly undergoing repair and modernization, while two more systems are used for personnel training and are periodically called upon for combat duty.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot missile defense system on Okinawa Island. The image was taken in January 2023.
Patriot air defense systems are spread fairly evenly across the entire Japanese islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa, and their engagement zones overlap each other.
A Google Earth satellite image shows the position of a U.S. Army Patriot air defense system near Kadena Air Base on the northern tip of Okinawa Island. The image was taken in April 2018.
Two batteries of the 1st Battalion, 1st Air Defense Regiment, part of the 38th Air Defense Brigade of the US Army, are stationed on Okinawa Island, providing air and missile defense for the American air base Kadena.
In the mid-1990s, the Republic of Korea's military initiated a program to develop its own long-range SAM-X air defense system, intended to replace the aging MIM-14 Nike-Hercules air defense system. However, due to technical and financial difficulties, the South Korean air defense system never made it past the design stage. Due to the need to replace the outdated and obsolete Nike-Hercules systems, in 2007 the South Korean government decided to purchase eight MIM-104D Patriot PAC-2/GEM batteries from Germany. In 2015, it was announced that the American corporation Raytheon had received a $769,4 million contract to upgrade South Korean Patriot air defense systems to the PAC-3 standard.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense system based in Daegu. The image was taken in December 2023.
The air defense training center where South Korean Patriot crews are trained is located near the city of Daegu, in the southeastern part of the country. Repair and maintenance of the systems are also carried out here.
Currently, the Republic of Korea's Joint Air Force and Air Defense Forces have three anti-aircraft missile brigades equipped with MIM-104D Patriot (PAC-2/GEM) systems.
Google Earth satellite image of a Patriot air defense system deployed at a former MIM-23B I-Hawk air defense system site in the southern suburbs of Seoul. The image was taken in March 2024.
Patriot air defense systems are deployed in the northern and central regions of the Republic of Korea. Given the limited intercept range of North Korean ballistic missiles, the SAMs are deployed near major South Korean military bases and important administrative and industrial centers. For example, three batteries are currently stationed south of central Seoul. Some Patriot SAMs have repurposed former Hawk SAM sites.
Six batteries of the 2nd and 6th Air Defense Battalions of the U.S. Army, part of the 35th Air Defense Brigade, headquartered at Osan Air Base, are deployed to Osan, Kunsan, and Suwon Air Bases.
Google Earth satellite image showing the positions of two Patriot SAM batteries at Osan Air Base. The image was taken in April 2023.
The US Army's Patriot missile systems deployed in the Republic of Korea have been reinforced. Each anti-aircraft battery has up to eight launchers, which should enhance its firepower in repelling a massive missile attack from North Korea.
Given the US dominance of the international arms market, the Patriot air defense system has very good export prospects. The system is planned to be upgraded by introducing the new LTAMDS radar from Raytheon and integrating it via the IBCS combat management system with the AN/MPQ-64 Sentinel, AN/TPS-80 G/ATOR, GhostEye MR (NASAMS), MFCR and SR from MEADS, AN/SPY-1 and AN/SPY-6 (Aegis BMD), AN/TPY-2 (THAAD and GMD), and AN/APG-81 (F-35 Lightning II) radars, as well as using the new "friend or foe" mode. It is known that the development of new two-stage interceptor missiles was considered, but whether practical testing has been carried out is unknown.
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