Islands between two nations
Viking ships sailing down the river
A Few Facts about the Viking Age
Since very few records survive from this time, and Viking society was built on migration and raiding, and much of Viking culture was ephemeral, it is important to note right away that much of what we know about them is based on speculation. And, as is often the case when studying stories, archaeology and the surviving sagas are puzzles in which all the pieces are face down and some pieces are missing entirely…
And while much of Viking history is recorded in intangible form, such as the sagas, modern readers should take them with a grain of salt – like most oral histories passed down through generations and later written down by people born long after the events described, they are often embellished and invented for the sake of a good story.
The Icelandic Sagas from the Árni Magnússon Collection, housed in Reykjavík, comprise approximately 3000 medieval and post-medieval manuscripts. Icelandic skalds were highly sought after, and wealthy Vikings hired them to tell their stories and exploits and pass them on from generation to generation. During the Middle Ages, Icelanders recorded these oral traditions in both Latin and Old Norse, and texts from this period were written on parchment, which was made from calfskin. Photo: Tom Lorenz
And since the Vikings themselves did not really think about what historical era they lived in, historians and archaeologists created it for them and called it “Viking Age", which began with the Scandinavians building more advanced boats than they had built before, after which they began to conduct their occasional plundering raids. The explosive growth of the Vikings in Europe, Asia, and America The result of a successful combination of tools, technology, adventurism, and ferocity, they became known as an unstoppable force, capable of raiding and trading across the then-known continents…
In the photo on the left: The famous Norwegian Viking ship, the clinker-built Oseberg (named after the site of its discovery). Radiocarbon dating and tree-ring analysis indicate that this oak-hulled ship was built around 820 AD and was recovered from the rubble in 1904. It is housed in the Viking Ship Hall in the Oslo Museum of Cultural History. Pictured right: a replica of the Oseberg ship
And wherever they went, they left behind a clear legacy, which can be seen in the remains of their early ships (known as drakkars and knorrs) and in their influence on local place names, language and social structures…
Geography of the Viking Age. The images depict the sea routes that connected coastlines and people during the Viking Age, as well as their permanent settlements. In the 9th century, new sea routes were discovered, allowing sailing ships to reach worlds far from the familiar shores of Scandinavia. Complex new cultures, cities, networks, and communities emerged at the junctions of these sea routes, and trade flourished. Looking at this era, one can confidently say that Viking navigation transformed the world.
Note. The earliest Viking ships, which arose in Scandinavian shipbuilding traditions, were general-purpose clinker-built vessels (laminated planking), exemplified by the famous Oseberg ships (c. 820), Gokstad (c. 890), and Tune (c. 905), discovered in Norway. These ships combined sails with oars for propulsion and had a shallow draft for access to rivers. Early ships were designed not only for battle; they were versatile, used for family travel, trade, and early raids. But by the end of the 9th century, ships had become more specialized: longer and narrower warships (skeid) began to appear for speed and surprise, and wider cargo ships (knorr) for long-distance trade. In Old Icelandic, skeið (skeid) denoted a large warship, the largest of which typically had 30 or more rowing benches..
The Gokstad ship (c. 890) is a larger, more robust ship found in Norway, demonstrating excellent seaworthiness for both trade and war, with accommodation for multiple rowers and a large sail. The Gokstad ship was built similarly to others, using clinker-built technology, primarily from oak. This 9th-century Viking ship, used as a burial vessel, was discovered in a burial mound on Gokstad farm in 1880. It is the centerpiece of the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo and is recognized as the largest surviving Viking ship in the country.
Traditionally, historical science connects the beginning of this era with the Viking raid on Lindisfarne Monastery (793) and ends it with the battle of the Anglo-Saxons with the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge (1066)...
Note. In October 782, Emperor Charlemagne, after suppressing a Saxon rebellion near the Elbe River, ordered the execution of 4500 Saxons in Verden-on-the-Aller for disobeying his authority and his efforts to Christianize them. Forced conversions and mass executions were commonplace at the time, but this bloody event had a royal connection: the Saxon leader, Widukind, was the Danish king's son-in-law, and news of the massacre reached the Danish court, fueling Danish discontent. Danish raids on the Frisian coast (modern-day Netherlands and northern Germany) immediately intensified, and the subsequent attack on Lindisfarne Monastery ten years later may have been somehow connected to the Verden massacre.
The ruins of Lindisfarne Monastery, located on Holy Island, represent the remains of a significant early Christian center founded by Irish monks in 635 and famous for Saint Cuthbert and the illuminated Lindisfarne Gospels. The remaining visible remains today are mostly those of the 12th-century monastery, which was rebuilt after the Viking attacks of 793 and fell into disrepair under Henry VIII.
The Viking Age also saw the emergence of the first kings who ruled territories, and these territories were not only in Scandinavia, but were scattered throughout Europe - Danelaw (England), the powerful Scandinavian-Gaelic kingdom of Dublin (Ireland), the Kingdom of the Isles (Hebrides and Man), the Orkney and Shetland Islands, Normandy (France) and even Kievan Rus with Sicily and Southern ItalyThese states ranged from large unified states in Scandinavia, such as the nascent kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, to independent Viking counties and city-states such as York (Jörvík) and Dublin, demonstrating a diversity of political structures.
And it is some of these territories, mainly island ones, which form a kind of “string” around Britain, such as the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, that will be discussed in this article...
Kingdom of the Islands
What was the Kingdom of the Isles?
The earliest and most reliable evidence of a unified Kingdom of the Isles dates to the second quarter of the 10th century, while later legends link this state, which by then included the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, to its beginnings a century earlier. Apparently, the "Kingdom of the Isles," as presented in 10th-century sources, took shape within a few years of the arrival of the first Viking settlers.
Map of the Kingdom of the Isles, a powerful kingdom that existed from 800 to 1200 AD. It is sometimes also called the Kingdom of Man and the Isles. Its history is somewhat convoluted, as records are incomplete. Its rulers were sometimes independent, but were often under the control of Norway, Ireland, England, Scotland, or the Orkney Islands.
However, these stories seem more propaganda than historical, for in Gaelic history the creation of the Kingdom of the Isles was associated with the king of Dál Riata.* (kingdom of the Gaels* and the Picts*(future Scotland) Cinaed mac Ailpin (810–858), and in the Scandinavian sagas, with the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair (850–933). Such a legendary connection between the Kingdom of the Isles and these national heroes can only reflect the competing claims of Scotland and Norway over the islands, as was attested in the 12th and 13th centuries.
A surviving Norse mill and kiln at Schoebost, on the west coast of the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides, used to dry and mill barley into flour, powered by the stream flowing from Loch Roinavath. It is the only traditional mill still in operation in the Hebrides.
Archaeological evidence suggests that different islands were colonized at different times, and toponymic and dialectal evidence suggests that "Scandinavianization" was achieved to varying degrees in different parts of the Hebrides and western Scotland. This impression of diversity suggests that localized power structures prevailed in this territory as it was conquered island by island. fleets Vikings under the command of various chieftains. Thus, the Kingdom of the Isles could have been created by uniting several pre-existing units.
The Callanish Stones are an ancient megalithic structure in the Hebrides. These structures were erected long before the Vikings arrived, during the late Neolithic period (approximately 5000 years ago), predating Stonehenge. They served as a center for ritual and astronomical activity, possibly tracking lunar cycles, and were part of a larger landscape of stone circles, remaining significant until the Bronze Age.
The Kingdom of the Isles was a powerful kingdom that existed from 800 to 1200 AD. It consisted of the Isle of Man, the Hebrides (a group of islands off the coast of Scotland), and the islands in the Firth of Clyde. The Vikings called these islands Sudreyjar, meaning "Southern Isles," to distinguish them from the "Northern Isles," such as Orkney and Shetland.
The low, sandy north-west shores of the Isle of Man provide easy access for flat-bottomed boats and are among the best landing places, and the Vikings not only landed on this northern coast but also settled here. In the photo on the left: reconstruction of a Viking village on the Isle of Man. Pictured right: the location of the island in the Irish Sea
And of these, the Isle of Man, a small but fertile island located in the center of the northern Irish Sea, roughly equidistant from the surrounding lands of England, Scotland, and Ireland, all of which are visible from it under favorable conditions. The Isle of Man was apparently the jewel in the crown of this fragile island kingdom in terms of its economic and political power, as illustrated by the wealth of Viking Age finds, which are more densely distributed here than in any other comparable area of the British Isles. This is also confirmed by surviving sources, which mention events on the Isle of Man far more frequently than in other parts of the islands.
Vikings lived in elongated rectangular buildings called longhouses. Most Viking houses had a wooden frame, but where wood was scarce, stone and turf were also used as building materials. Walls were often constructed of wattle and daub or wooden planks, and the roof was covered with grass. The floor was either stone or compacted earth.
The history of this kingdom, which stretches over 500 kilometres from north to south, is somewhat confusing, as records are incomplete and its rulers were sometimes independent, yet often under the control of Norway, Ireland, England, Scotland or the Orkney Islands.
A reconstruction of a Viking village. People lived on agricultural farms, and these buildings, although simple, served as housing for families and livestock, demonstrating a more permanent, though still rural, lifestyle. The houses were built primarily of timber frames, filled with wattle and clay, and topped with thatched or wooden roofs. Windows were small openings covered with animal skins to protect from wind and rain.
Viking influence in this region began in the late 8th century, when Norse raiders first began making their presence felt along the island's coast. Before their arrival, the southern Hebrides were part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata, while the northern Hebrides were presumably under Pictish control. It's unclear exactly when and how the Vikings conquered these islands, but it is known that repeated Viking raids on the British Isles began in 793.
An example of a Viking "longhouse." Before the arrival of the Vikings, houses on the Isle of Man were mostly round, timber-framed, often built within fortified hillforts or small clifftop settlements, with earthen ramparts for protection, a central hearth for warmth, and simple interiors.
These early raids were part of a broader Viking expansion across the British Isles and the North Atlantic. Archaeological evidence suggests that Viking activity in the region initially took the form of surprise raids targeting monasteries and settlements.
But as Viking raids became more frequent, the nature of their presence on the islands began to change from simple raids to settlement, and by the mid-9th century, Norwegian settlers had already established permanent colonies on the islands, attracted by its fertile lands and strategic position.
The Isle of Man's location between Britain and Ireland made it a key maritime hub during the Viking Age, and when Norwegian Vikings began arriving in the 9th century, they quickly recognized its strategic importance for trade and control of the sea routes in the Irish Sea. Furthermore, the Vikings were accomplished sailors and traders, and the island's central location facilitated trade—goods such as textiles, silver, and precious metals passed through the Isle of Man's ports, fostering the development of a vibrant and thriving trading community.
Agriculture also played a crucial role here: the Norwegians introduced cutting-edge farming and livestock farming techniques to the island. The island's economy at this time was a combination of agriculture, fishing, and trade, with a strong maritime focus.
For two centuries, from about 1079 to 1265, this vast maritime kingdom was ruled by first one and then two powerful dynasties of sea kings, descendants of the mysterious and semi-legendary Viking warlord Godred Crovan, who conquered the Isle of Man in 1079 and died in 1095.
Note. A surviving text from the mid-13th century, known as the Chronicle of the Kings of Man and the Isles, tells of the founder of the dynasty, Godred Crovan, who conquered the Isle of Man, settled there, established new laws, and became the ancestor of all subsequent kings. He is also portrayed as a great military leader, described as having "so pacified the Scots [possibly Irish] that no one building ships or boats dared handle more than three iron bolts."
According to the Orkney Saga, around 872, Harald Fairhair became king of a united Norway. Many of his enemies fled to the islands, including the Hebrides and Man, but Harald pursued them and in 875 captured the Northern Isles (Orkney and Shetland), and then a little later reached the Hebrides. However, local earls and Viking kings rebelled, and Harald sent Ketill Flatnose (from Iceland) to suppress it. Ketill succeeded, after which he proclaimed himself an independent "King of the Isles," a title he retained for the rest of his life.
Pictured left: Harald Fairhair (right) receives the throne of Norway from his father. Illustration from the largest medieval Icelandic manuscript, the Flateyjarbók (Codex Flateyensis) 14th century. Pictured on the right: Norway in the first decade of the 800s
However, there is no reliable evidence of Viking activity on the Isle of Man before the 10th century, although the Annals of Ulster (Annals of Ulster) report an attack on an island located between Britain and Ireland in 798, but it is unclear whether this was the Isle of Man. Although no direct evidence of raids has been found on the Isle of Man itself, it is highly unlikely that it would have escaped the attention of Viking raiders. Being experienced and skilled seafarers, the Vikings would undoubtedly have noticed the convenient natural harbors along the island's coast. Moreover, the long sandy beaches of the glacial plain in the north of the Isle of Man offered sailors ideal landing sites, and the fertility of this northern plain naturally made it the most attractive place for Viking settlement.
Isle Of Man
The first and most definitive evidence of Viking ties to the Isle of Man dates back to 914. That year, a naval battle took place off the coast of the Isle of Man between Bardr Ottarsson, the presumed ruler of the Isle of Man, and Rognvaldr, the grandson of Ivarr (King of Dublin), the future King of York, and ruler of the Danelaw. Bardr was defeated and killed in this battle, suggesting that warring Viking groups at this time were seeking control of both the Isle of Man itself and the surrounding sea routes. From 914 to 918, the Ivarr dynasty of Dublin kings carried out a series of raids around the Irish Sea, and the Isle of Man likely fell victim to these attacks.
Mound at Ballater (Ballateare), excavated in 1946 by Gerhard Bersu on the Isle of Man, is a significant monument from the Viking Age (c. 900), consisting of a coffin containing the body of a male warrior, containing the remains of a weapons and the ritually sacrificed body of a woman, crowned with cremated animal bones. In the photo on the left: a sword deliberately broken into three pieces. Pictured right: a skull belonging to a woman sacrificed to accompany a warrior in the afterlife
But these were all military groups, while evidence of permanent Viking settlements on the Isle of Man appears in the archaeological record quite late, probably in the 930s. This is evidenced by the magnificent pagan burials found on the Isle of Man, which point to the arrival of a warrior elite and a not entirely peaceful integration with the local Gaelic population. In Balladoole, on the southern part of the island, recent Christian Gaelic burials were desecrated to make way for the burial of a noble jarl's 11-meter-long boat, and in Ballater, on the western part of the island, evidence of human sacrifice is the skeleton of a female slave with a slashed skull, which was found alongside other valuable grave goods in the burial of a noble Viking.
Balladoole is one of the most impressive ancient monuments on the Isle of Man. It has been the subject of numerous excavations, which have uncovered numerous important finds, including the boat grave of a noble Viking at Balladoole (Balladoole). In the photo on the left: a pagan burial custom of a "boat grave" erected over an earlier Christian cemetery. Judging by the condition of the bones, the Vikings deliberately neglected the Christian burials to demonstrate their superiority over the natives and their religion. However, it is possible that the Vikings only stumbled upon the tombstones by chance. This raises a number of questions regarding both the religious and social aspects of the burial customs of the Balladool Vikings and their relationship with the local population of the Isle of Man. Pictured right: A model of the excavations at the Manx Museum
Around the late 1000s, King Magnus Barefoot of Norway (1073-1103) invaded the kingdom, leading to a brief period of direct Norwegian rule. But the family of Godred Crovan, the island's king, soon regained control.
Peel Castle (Peel Castle) is located on St. Patrick's Island and is connected to the city by a causeway. It was built in the 11th century by the Norwegians during the reign of King Magnus Barefoot. Although there were earlier stone Celtic monastic buildings on the island, the first Norwegian fortifications were built of wood, with battlements later added. This is the largest and most complex cultural heritage site on the Isle of Man, surrounded by a 700-meter-long fortified wall, and was a royal residence.
But this independent rule ended with the rise to power of Somerled, a commander of Gaelic-Norse descent, the founder and first ruler of the now-unified Kingdom of the Isles, who defeated King Godred Olafsson of Man in battle. Here's what the Chronicle of the Kings of Man and the Isles tells about this battle:
In 1156, on the night of Epiphany (January 6), a naval battle took place between Godred and Somerled, and there was great slaughter on both sides.
At dawn, they made peace and divided the Kingdom of the Isles between them. From that day until now, the kingdom has existed in two parts, and this has been the cause of its disintegration since Somerled's sons took possession of it. Thus, the Chronicles present Somerled not only as the founder of a rival dynastic line in the Isles, but also as the man bearing some responsibility for the destruction of the kingdom's unity, effectively dividing it into two rival kingdoms.
In the photo on the left: a cross-shaped slab decorated with Norse pagan and Christian images, as well as Manx runes. In the photo in the center: Swords from the Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo. Photo: Eirik Irgens Johnsen. Pictured right: Norse mythology carvings on a stone cross on the Isle of Man
But after Somerland's death in 1164, the Kingdom of the Isles was divided into two parts—Man and the Hebrides. About a century later, in 1266, following the Treaty of Perth, the islands, which had been under shaky Norwegian rule, became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. However, due to prolonged resistance by the Lords of the Isles, final ownership of the Hebrides only passed to the Scottish Crown in the 15th century, during the reign of King James IV.
Note. The Viking Age on the Isle of Man began to wane in the late 12th century, as Gaelic and English influences gradually increased. The rise of powerful Gaelic clans, coupled with the growing influence of the Kingdom of Scotland, led to a weakening of Viking control over the island. By the early 13th century, the Isle of Man was firmly under the control of the Scottish Crown.
Typical examples of the fusion of Gaelic and Scandinavian cultures on the Isle of Man are also unique monuments combining Scandinavian runic and ogham inscriptions on a single stone. One example of such Manx runestones is the one found in Kirk Andreas Church, dating back to around 940.
Finally, it should be noted that for over three centuries, the Isle of Man was a vital part of the Kingdom of the Isles, a powerful Norse-Gaelic state from the 9th to 13th centuries, known in Old Norse as "Súdreyjar" (Southern Isles). The Vikings established a strategic stronghold here, and intermarriage with the local Gaelic population developed a unique Manx identity through a fusion of Norse and Gaelic cultures, which can still be seen in laws (Tynwald is one of the oldest parliaments in the world), language, art (Manx crosses), and archaeology.
Artistic reconstruction of the "pagan" tomb of Ballateare (Ballateare). Drawing by Miroslav Kuzma©
And, in concluding the description of the Isle of Man and the Hebrides, it must be said that the Vikings left deep traces here in the form of toponyms directly derived from the Old Norse language, as well as words that have been preserved in the lexicon of the Isle of Man, especially those associated with the sea and agriculture.
Although traces of Scandinavian influence in the Hebrides can still be found in place names and people, archaeological finds from this period are limited. The most famous finds from this period are the chessmen from Lewis (an island in the Outer Hebrides), dating to the mid-12th century. Since their discovery in 1831, the chessmen have been used as evidence in the debate over whether Vikings were primarily raiders or traders. The pieces are on permanent display at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
Today, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man share a deep common Viking heritage, evident in their Norse-Gaelic culture, language, unique art that blends Norse mythology with Christianity, legal system (Manx Parliament of Tynwald), and archaeological sites that demonstrate settlements, trade (hoards), and everyday life, creating a distinctive culture shaped by seafaring Norsemen who integrated with the local Gaelic population from the 9th century onwards.
The site where the Manx Parliament met. The first historical references to Tynwald, the world's oldest parliament, appear in the Chronicle of Manx. A Latin manuscript held in the British Library in London contains references to the original meetings of Tynwald, which was founded sometime between the 9th and 10th centuries.
And on these small islands in the Irish Sea, the Viking legacy not only survives – it thrives…
Note. One of the main unresolved questions today is the island's relationship with the Roman Empire and the 400-year history of the Roman province of Britannia. The Roman navy and army firmly controlled the Irish Sea, which became a transport artery between the breadbasket of Anglesey (an island in Wales) and the fluid border zone between northern England and Scotland. The island was effectively surrounded on three sides by Romanized communities and imperial infrastructure, but there are no archaeological traces of this, save for a few metal objects confirming occasional contacts.
Orkney and Shetland Islands
And while much of early British history was shaped by the Romans after their invasion of the island, they never reached Orkney or Shetland, but the Vikings did, making them part of their wider world, where many Scandinavian influences can still be seen, mainly in the place names they left behind with strong Scandinavian connotations.
Vikings arrived here from western Norway and settled these fertile islands as farmers seeking new lands, beginning around the end of the 8th century. The islands lying between Scandinavia and Britain became trading centers and starting points for further sea voyages to Iceland, Greenland, and North America, connecting Britain and Scandinavia.
Note. The only real insight into life on the islands, beyond archaeological excavations, comes from the Orkney Saga, written in the 12th century, which offers a fascinating glimpse into what life was like there during the Norse period. Using the saga as a serious historical source should be done with caution, as it was written several generations after the events, and the story may have been adapted, exaggerated, or invented by the storytellers. Nevertheless, it provides a more or less accurate picture of life for 12th-century Vikings and the generations that came before them, even if it has been embellished and exaggerated over time to suit the storyteller's narrative.
The first Vikings are believed to have arrived here in the late 700s from western Norway, when they discovered that just a couple of days' sail away lay two archipelagos of approximately three hundred islands stretching along the northern part of Britain. Thus began the Norse period on the islands, the first evidence of which comes from the island of Unst (Shetland), the northernmost of these islands.
Unst Island, Scotland's northernmost inhabited island, is one of the most picturesque, diverse, and inhabited islands and the third largest island in the Shetland archipelago. The island contains the highest concentration of Viking village settlements known to date. It is home to a replica of a reconstructed Viking longhouse and a full-scale reconstruction of the Gokstad ship.
This became known after work was carried out to expand the cemetery, when hundreds of fragments of soapstone vessels, fishing weights, loom parts, spindle whorls and fired plates were discovered in one of the Pictish crypts, in precisely those styles that could only have come from Scandinavia, and using technologies that the Picts who lived here earlier did not use at that time.
Broch Musa in the Shetland Islands. Brochs are a type of Iron Age roundhouse found only in northern Scotland, and Musa is the best-preserved of them. Believed to have been built around 300 BC, it stands 13 meters tall and is a symbol of Scotland's Celtic era. This broch is mentioned twice in the Norse sagas. The purpose of brochs and their cultural affiliation are a matter of debate. Pictured right: Map of the distribution of brochs in Scotland (highlighted in red).
During the Viking Age, the Orkney and Shetland Islands can largely be seen as stopovers en route to other lands—the Hebrides, Ireland, England, Scotland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland. These islands served as a useful stopover, a place to replenish fresh food and water, make repairs, and seek shelter from inclement weather. Even historians believe that the Vikings who settled here suffered from seasickness and were unable to undertake longer voyages!
The Neolithic tomb of Maeshowe, built around 5000 years ago, is a monumental chamber tomb and the best-preserved Neolithic structure in northwestern Europe. Vikings visited here and left behind humorous runic inscriptions containing curses! If the Orkneyinga Saga is accurate, Maeshowe was plundered by the famous Vikings Earl Harald Maddadarson and Ragnvald, Earl of Møre in Norway.
The exact reasons for the conquest of new lands are largely unknown. Perhaps the Vikings' migration to these islands was driven by a land shortage and a growing population—the laws of inheritance in Scandinavian culture meant that land passed to the eldest son (or daughter), leaving subsequent sons to find land for farming and settlement on their own—this is what led to the Vikings' expansion. It's also quite possible that the Vikings initially simply used the islands as a staging area for their raids on England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in the following decades, they became widely and permanently populated by a sedentary agricultural population. Surprisingly, despite their reputation as fearsome warriors, the Vikings settled down and began farming!
The Skidbladner is a full-size replica of the Gokstad ship, found in a Viking burial mound in Norway in 1880. The original ship is believed to have been built during the reign of Harald Fairhair, who is said to have landed on the island of Unst (Shetland) and after whom Haroldsvik Bay is named.
Another reason for the settlement of these archipelagos, and this is mentioned in some old folk tales, is that some of the Scandinavians who arrived in the Orkney and Shetland Islands fled Norway to escape the tyrannical rule of Harald Fairhair, who claimed the kingship after his victory at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872. It is believed that the warriors of the losing side left Norway to avoid living under the rule of King Harald and to avoid possible reprisals for opposing him in the first place!
Scotland is dotted with circles and rows of standing stones erected by ancient peoples for ceremonial, ritual, and funerary purposes, including the Stones of Stenness, a pre-Viking Neolithic monument consisting of four upright stones up to 6 meters high, arranged in a circle (originally comprising 12 stones). Radiocarbon dating of the Orkney Islands suggests a date of construction around 2900 BC. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage site.
The surviving Saga of Harald Fairhair tells us that Harald approached the Shetland Islands and killed all the Vikings there who had not managed to escape, and then sailed south to the Orkney Islands and also cleared them of Vikings.
The Picts were the last inhabitants of this area before the Vikings arrived, and there is ample evidence of the displacement of the pre-existing Pictish population, though the precise nature of this displacement is unknown, as there is no evidence of wars, battles, or mass graves. It appears that some Picts were displaced from the coastal areas, where most of their settlements were located, to the marshy interior, as several place names contain the word "Petta," meaning "Pict," such as Pettadale (Pictish Valley), Petta Water (Pictish Lake), and Pettcairn (Pictish Cairn).
Jarlshof (jarlshof) is another archaeological site in the Shetland Islands, encompassing history from the Neolithic to the Viking Age and illustrating the various stages of human settlement on the islands from the 25th century BC to the 17th century AD. The name "Jarlshof" (meaning "earl's house") was given to this place by Walter Scott in his novel "The Pirate." The correct name of this place is Sumburgh, derived from the Old Norse word borg, meaning "fortress."
It's unclear whether the indigenous Pictish population was assimilated by the growing Norse population or exterminated, but within a short period of time, a purely Scandinavian culture emerged on these islands. Until archaeological evidence confirms otherwise, it seems more likely that the Vikings and subsequent Norse settlers assimilated into pre-existing Pictish societies.
Pre-Viking artifacts found at Jarlshof in the Shetland Islands
Thus, the arrival of the Vikings changed everything on these islands: the Pictish legal system and power structures were abolished and replaced by Norwegian ones, and the previously existing Pictish language and place names were replaced by Scandinavian names.
Note. The 12th-century History of Norway recounts that a group of Norwegian Vikings attacked the islands, killing all the Picts there, and conquering the archipelago. This is supported by the fact that Scandinavian settlement on the Orkney and Shetland islands, unlike other areas of Scotland and the islands, appears to have completely displaced the indigenous Pictish population. Some scholars, however, believe the History of Norway is inaccurate, and that the original Norwegian presence consisted of simple farmers and fishermen who arrived here in the late 8th century and who coexisted peacefully with their Pictish neighbors.
The Church of St Magnus on the island of Egilsay in Orkney dates back to the 11th century.
In keeping with the legend that the settlers of these islands were the bitter enemies of the Norwegian King Harald, these Orkney and Shetland Vikings apparently spent their summers raiding not only England, Ireland, and the northern Gaelic principalities of what would become Scotland, but also Harald's own holdings in Norway. And understandably, the Norwegian king was very displeased with this and personally led a fleet across the North Sea to suppress this nest of pirates and bring the islands directly under the Norwegian crown. It is generally accepted that the king apparently first landed on the island of Unst (Shetland), and the bay where he landed now bears his name—Haroldswick (Haroldswick).
St. Olaf's Church on the island of Unst is a ruined medieval church located in the Shetland Islands. Built in the Celtic style, the church dates back to the 12th century.
Note. The Old Norse word "wick" means bay or cove, and "voe" means a narrow sea inlet. Additional words are often "attached" to these words, resulting in "Ler."wick (Lerwick, the administrative centre) is a 'muddy bay' or Gulberwick — Gulbera Bay, Scola fly - Scalloway.
Although it is known that the Norse Viking settlers founded the first towns in Ireland or expanded existing settlements such as York in England, their Orkney and Shetland counterparts do not appear to have lived in any kind of urban setting at all, as the vast majority of Viking houses on the islands are isolated farm buildings.
The Ring of Brodgar is a large Neolithic stone circle in the Orkney Islands. Built around 2500–2000 BC, it is a massive circular stone circle, creating a ceremonial landscape alongside other ancient monuments, such as the Stones of Stenness, renowned for their near-perfect circular shape. The complex is part of a UNESCO World Heritage site.
It is generally accepted that most of the inhabitants of the Orkney and Shetland Islands at that time were farmers and fishermen—they raised sheep, cattle, and pigs, grew barley and oats, and wove woolen fabrics. They were incredibly skilled sailors who brought new technologies, farming, and fishing methods to the islands, laying the foundation for the fishing industry of Orkney and Shetland, which remains the backbone of their economy today.
Midhow is another broch in the Orkney Islands. It is famous for the discovery of a Roman bronze vessel. The presence of this Roman artifact lends some credence to the accounts of the fourth-century Roman historian Eutropius, who claimed that the "king" of the Orkney Islands submitted to Emperor Claudius in 43 AD.
Note. However, the Vikings also had slaves, or thralls, for labor and trade. Incidentally, the word "thrall" is still used in English, for example, to mean "to be in slavery" to someone, that is, to be under their control.
Before the Vikings arrived, the indigenous people of Orkney and Shetland built round houses divided into 'rooms', forming what we call 'wheelhouses' because from above they resemble a wagon wheel, with a central hearth serving as the hub of the wheel.
The ruins of the Viking longhouse at Hamar, located on the island of Unst in the Shetland Islands, represent one of the best-preserved early Viking Age settlements in the region.
But the Vikings who arrived quickly adapted to the island landscape, which was significantly different from their native Norway. Where there were no trees to build the wooden rectangular houses common in Scandinavia, they used what was at hand—stone. And because stone is durable and does not deteriorate over time, many of the longhouses they built have survived to this day, allowing us to gain a clearer understanding of settlement patterns on these islands.
A reconstructed Viking Age longhouse
Politically, the Viking settlements on the Orkney and Shetland Islands were the Earldom of Orkney, a Norwegian territory founded by Harald Fairhair after he sailed there with his army and took control of the islands, along with part of the northern Scottish mainland (Caithness, Sutherland).
Ruled by powerful earls (jarls) from Norway, who were originally vassals of the Norwegian crown, the earldom served for centuries as an important Norwegian stronghold, responsible for maintaining ships, lighthouses, and critical elements of Orkney's defenses—necessary given the proximity of the often hostile Scottish mainland.
The genealogy of the Earls of Orkney spans several distinct Norwegian and Scottish lines, beginning with Viking settlers such as Ragnvald Eysteinsson (died 890), who, along with the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair, led an expedition against the Vikings of Orkney and Shetland, who had devolved into simple bandits and pirates raiding Norway. Today, the Earls of Orkney and Shetland are members of the now Scottish Hamilton dynasty, but they no longer have any connection to the islands beyond the title itself.
Note. According to legend, Ragnvald Eysteinsson was the father of a certain legendary Viking, Hrólfr the Footstool, who seized part of the French king's lands and founded the Duchy of Normandy there under the Latinized name Rollo (d. 930). However, French historians disagree and believe that Rollo's father was a famous Danish or Norwegian earl named Ketil Flatnose (the Norwegian King of Man and the Isles).
But as Norway weakened and Scotland grew stronger, the Orkney and Shetland Islands eventually came under Scottish control in 1468 and 1469, respectively, after being pawned by King Christian I of Norway as collateral for the royal dowry of King James III of Scotland in exchange for a dowry for his daughter, Margaret. But they only truly came under Scottish control in 1581, with the rise of the Stuart earls.
Note. Interestingly, this dowry was never paid, leading some historians to argue that the Orkney and Shetland Islands should remain Norwegian. Many islanders share this view, as back in 2023, a member of the Orkney Islands Council proposed a referendum that could return the islands to Norwegian control. Overall, it's not surprising that both Orkney and Shetland, in their distinctive cultures, are more reminiscent of Scandinavia than Scotland.
Today, the Orkney and Shetland Islands are part of the United Kingdom. However, in the Middle Ages, they were under Norwegian sovereignty but also closely associated with the Scottish kingdom. As a result, these islands have received diverse cultural influences, giving them a unique historical background and identity, and their Norwegian history is embedded in the broader narrative of Norway's period of greatness in the High Middle Ages. Furthermore, their proximity to Scotland was one of the main factors in the islands' cession to the Scottish crown in the 15th century.
Photo on the left: A stained glass window depicting Princess Margaret and James III of Scotland in Lerwick Town Hall. Apparently, they are depicted facing away from each other, as their marriage was short-lived and unhappy! Photo on the rightLerwick Town Hall
And separated from the British mainland by the hostile North Sea, these Scottish islands still play a key role in everyday life…
The rich Viking heritage of Orkney and Shetland dates back to centuries of Norse rule (c. 800–1472), leaving a deep mark in place names, a distinct language – the Norn dialect, which survived until the 19th century, traditions such as the Shetland Up Helly Aa, and physical sites such as the outstanding example of Norman Romanesque architecture, St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney.
Note. The language of the Scandinavian settlers was called Norn, a form of Old Norse spoken in the Shetland and Orkney islands until about 300 years ago. The last person believed to have spoken the language was a woman named Ginny Rutter, who died in 1926.
Mindful of its rich history, Lerwick, the capital of Shetland, has found a unique way to celebrate the deep-rooted Scandinavian influence on the culture and history of the Shetland Islands by hosting a Viking festival on the last Tuesday of January each year. Up Helly AaThis spectacular Viking fire festival, celebrating Scandinavian heritage, includes nightly torchlight processions, theatrical costumes, and the nightly burning of a Viking longship, culminating in a grand party.
Festival Up Helly Aa marks the end of winter with costumed torchlight processions, where each participant carries a flaming torch, and ends with the burning of a replica Viking longship. These festivals take place every year from January to March and celebrate the return of light after the long winter.
Although political power changed hands in the 1400s, and the Norwegian culture, language (Norn), and legal system gradually faded over the following centuries, a strong Norwegian heritage remains a key part of the islands' identity to this day…
The end of the Viking Age
Most textbooks say the Viking Age ended in September 1066 with the Anglo-Saxon battle with the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, but this is a very Anglo-centric view! It could be argued that the Viking Age lasted much longer in the Shetland Islands, and some even say, if we're being overly exaggerated, that it lasted until the onset of the Little Ice Age (13th century)...
And I would like to finish with a quote from the book The New History of Orkney Orkney historian William P. L. Thomson, where he comments on the rather biased views of his predecessors on the history of the islands:
The heyday of the Orkney Islands' warlike society during the saga period was considered a true period of greatness, while subsequent history was seen as a record of progressive decline from the Golden Age of Scandinavian civilization. This romantic, yet essentially pessimistic, view tended to emphasize Scandinavian influence and view contact with Scotland as inherently corrupting.
Swords of Sverd-i-Fjell (Norwegian Sverd i Fjell) are three enormous Viking Age swords erected in 1983 near Stavanger to commemorate the final victory of King Harald Fairhair, when he united all of Norway under one crown around 872. The largest sword symbolizes the victorious Harald, and the two smaller swords represent the defeated petty kings. The monument also symbolizes peace, as the swords are embedded in solid rock, so they can never be removed. Sculptor: Fritz Rød
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*Dal Riata - a Gaelic maritime kingdom that existed from the late 5th to the 9th centuries, stretching along the North Channel and including parts of northeastern Ireland and western Scotland. The inhabitants of this kingdom were known by the Latin term "Scots," originally used by the Romans to refer to Gaelic raiders. This ethnic group eventually gave its name to the country of Scotland.
*Picts The Gaels were an ancient people who inhabited the territory of modern-day Scotland and were known to the Romans as the "Painted Ones." They were renowned for their resistance to invaders, tattoos, unique stone carvings, and were formidable warriors. Dominant in Scotland during the Dark Ages, they established their own "kingdoms," resisted the Romans, and eventually merged with the Gaels, their language and distinctive identity having completely disappeared by the 11th century.
*Gaels The Gaels are an ethnolinguistic group indigenous to Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man, known for speaking Gaelic languages and sharing a Celtic culture descended from ancient peoples who migrated from Ireland across the Irish Sea. In the 5th and 6th centuries, some Gaels migrated to Northern Britain, where they founded the tribal union (kingdom) of Dál Riata, and in 843, the kingdom of Alba, giving their name to Scotland, later uniting the country.
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