Domestic ekranoplans
In the 20s of the last century aviation We first encountered the ground effect during airplane landings. Sometimes, as the aircraft approached the ground, it seemed as if it were floating on a kind of air cushion and stubbornly refused to land.
The ground effect occurs when an aircraft flies close to the ground or water surface (from a few centimeters to several meters), maintaining its aerodynamic lift primarily due to the aerodynamic lift generated by the wing and body as a result of interaction with air reflected from the underlying surface. When using the ground effect, lift increases by 40%.
Since the 30s, research has been underway both abroad and in the USSR to develop ground effect vehicles. Two schools of ground effect vehicle design can be distinguished: the Soviet (Rostislav Alekseyev) with a straight wing and the Western (Alexander Martin Lippisch) with a forward-swept delta wing with pronounced inverse dihedral. R.E. Alekseyev's design requires more stabilization, but allows for higher speeds and airplane mode. The third proposed design was the tandem configuration of G. Jörg (West Germany), which has several advantages (such as automatic stabilization).
Layout diagrams of ekranoplans: A - Alekseev's diagram, B - Lippisch's diagram, C - Jörg's diagram
Soviet ekranoplan developments can be divided into three main groups:
• Designs of the Central Design Bureau for SPK under the leadership of R.E. Alekseev
• Designs by Robert Bartini at the G.M. Beriev Aviation Design Bureau in Taganrog (1968-1974)
• Small ekranoplans, in the development of which various design bureaus took part.
In 1958, the Central Hydrofoil Design Bureau (TsKB po SPK) in Gorky began laboratory research into the ground effect on towed models and self-propelled manned vehicles. For this purpose, an IS-2 test facility was built on the Gorky Reservoir.
The work was carried out under the supervision of the famous shipbuilding engineer Rostislav Evgenievich Alekseev (1916–1980), the creator of many projects for boats and hydrofoil vessels for both military and civilian purposes, such as “Rocket", "Meteor", "Comet".
Rostislav Evgenievich Alekseev
In 1961, the first self-propelled ekranoplan model, the SM-1, was built. This three-seat craft, weighing 2830 kg, was equipped with a turbojet engine, providing a speed of up to 270 km/h at an altitude of 0,5 m above the water surface. The SM-1's maiden flight took place on July 22, 1961, with Alekseyev himself piloting the ekranoplan.
Between 1962 and 1970, more advanced self-propelled models of the SM-2, the SM-6, and the SM-8, were built. One of the innovations was a turbojet booster engine, the exhaust gases of which were fed under the ekranoplan's wings during takeoff, increasing lift at low speeds. A flight test service was established at the Central Design Bureau to test ekranoplans, staffed by professional test pilots.
CM-2
In May 1962, at the Khimki Reservoir, the SM-2 was demonstrated to the First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, N.S. Khrushchev, who was favorably impressed, which significantly contributed to the further development of this area of technology.
In 1963, the SM-5 ekranoplan entered service. It was a scaled-down model (1:4) of the giant KM ("Caspian Monster") ekranoplan that was under development. The SM-5's lifespan was short-lived: in August 1964, it crashed, the first of its kind. stories family "SM".
During testing, the vehicle encountered a strong headwind, its nose began to lift, and due to improper crew control, it broke away from the screen, hit the water, and was destroyed. The entire two-person crew perished.
After the 1967 disaster, taking into account all the previous shortcomings, the SM-8, another KM-like vehicle, was built. In the summer of 1968, the ekranoplan landed on a grassy beach, demonstrating its amphibious capabilities. Traveling at approximately 60 km/h, it easily overcame ground irregularities up to 0,2 m.
Following the start of design work on the Orlyonok ekranoplan in 1968, a two-seat equivalent, the SM-6, with a takeoff weight of 26,5 tons, was developed in 1970. The SM-6 flew at a speed of 350 km/h at an altitude of 1 m. Tests were conducted not only on the Volga, but also on the Caspian Sea.
CM-6
While testing of self-propelled models continued, designers at the Gorky Central Design Bureau were working on the giant ekranoplan KM (Korabl-Maket), designated Project 1133. In the West, this craft was nicknamed the "Caspian Monster," as American space reconnaissance assets first detected the KM during tests in the Caspian Sea. The chief designer of this ekranoplan was R.E. Alekseev, and the lead designer was V.P. Efimov.
Many Soviet enterprises were involved in the construction of the KM ekranoplan, including those in the Gorky region—the Krasnoye Sormovo plant and the Sergo Ordzhonikidze Aircraft Plant. The KM was laid down in 1963 and launched in March 1966.
KM
It was decided to conduct tests of the mock-up ship in the Caspian Sea. For nearly a month, with its wing detached and covered with camouflage net, the "monster" was towed in a floating dock along the Volga River in strict secrecy.
A rather curious incident involving the KM occurred. Pressure was coming from above, demanding its testing begin as soon as possible. Alekseyev found an ingenious solution. Although the ekranoplan was still being assembled in the floating dock, Rostislav Evgenievich surprised his staff by taking the flight log and writing, "Flight in dock." All 10 engines roared, with thrust at 40% of nominal, and the dock began to break free of its moorings. Only then were the engines stopped.
On October 18, 1966, the ekranoplan completed its maiden 50-minute flight, in which Alekseyev participated. The KM was used for various tests until October 15, 1980, when, due to pilot error, the ekranoplan crashed; the crew managed to escape.
The forward pylons housed eight VK-7B turbojet engines, each producing 11 tons of thrust, and the vertical stabilizer housed two VK-7KM cruise engines. The Lun's hull was divided into ten watertight compartments and had three decks.
Based on the KM design, work on the Project 903 Lun missile ship, led by V.N. Kirillov, began at the Central Design Bureau for Hydrofoil Design in the early 1970s. Construction of the lead Lun began in 1983 at the Volga experimental plant in Gorky, and in the summer of 1986, it was launched and towed to Kaspiysk, Dagestan, for completion and testing. Following a series of tests and operational trials, the ship joined the 236th ekranoplan division of the Caspian Flotilla in 1991. Construction of eight Lun-class ekranoplans was planned, but these plans were never realized.
Unlike previous ekranoplan types, the Lun was armed with powerful armament. Three twin launchers for 3M-80 Moskit anti-ship missiles were mounted on its back. The missiles had a firing range of 10 to 120 km at low altitudes, or 250 km at high altitudes. The warhead contained 150 kg of explosive, allowing it to target ships displacing up to 20 tons.
For self-defense, including from an air enemy, two were used artillery UKU-9K-502-II mounts with twin 23-mm twin-barreled GSh-23 aircraft cannons and a Krypton radar sight. Similar mounts were used on the Il-76M/MD and Tu-95MS aircraft.
"Lun"
In 2020, the Lun was delivered from Kaspiysk to the Patriot Park under construction in Derbent, Dagestan, which is scheduled to open in 2023.
Following the April 7, 1989, disaster on the Komsomolets nuclear submarine, which killed 42 crew members, a decision was made to develop a ground effect vehicle (GEF) for rescue. The second, unfinished Lun was used for this project. The "Spasatel" was to be equipped with optical, television, infrared, and radar search equipment, rescue gear, and a medical unit. It could accommodate 150-500 rescued people, and had a range of 2160 miles. In the 90s, work was halted due to lack of funding, with the project 75% complete.
In 1964, the Central Design Bureau for Landing Craft (TsKB) began design work on the T-1 Project 904 (codename "Orlyonok") landing ekranoplan, under the direction of P. E. Alekseev and later V. V. Sokolov. The "Orlyonok" was designed to transport troops up to 1500 km and land them on unmanned beaches. In the Navy, it was classified as a Small Landing Ship-Ekranoplan (MLD). Unlike the aforementioned ekranoplan types, the MLD could fly not only on an ekranoplan but also like an aircraft at altitudes of up to 3000 meters.
"Eaglet"
The power plant consisted of two NK-8-4K turbojet engines mounted in the nose and an NK-12MK turboprop engine mounted on the tail. These engines are marine modifications of the production engines used in the Tu-154, Il-62, and Tu-95 aircraft.
The ekranoplan could carry up to 200 paratroopers or up to 28 tons of cargo or two armored vehicles (APC, BMP, танк PT-76). They were loaded and unloaded through a side-hinged nose and two side doors. Armament consisted of a turret-mounted machine gun mount (two NSVT Utes-M 12,7mm machine guns).
Unloading an armored personnel carrier from the Orlyonok
The crew consisted of a commander, co-pilot, mechanic, navigator, radio operator, and gunner. When transporting troops, the crew also included technicians.
In the cockpit of the Orlyonok
During the construction and operation of military ekranoplans, disputes arose over their builders (the USSR Ministry of Aviation Industry or the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry) and their affiliation (the Air Force or the Navy). That is, were they ships or aircraft? Ultimately, it was decided that the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry would build them, the ekranoplans would belong to the Navy, and they would be piloted by naval aviators. The Orlyat aircraft were built at the Volga experimental plant, located near the city of Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod).
According to the definition set forth in the "Interim Safety Guidelines for Ground Effect Vehicles" adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a ground effect vehicle is a multi-mode craft that, in its primary operational mode, flies using the "ground effect" over water or another surface without maintaining continuous contact with it... Thus, ground effect vehicles are subject to IMO requirements. Ground effect vehicles capable of leaving the ground for extended periods and entering "airplane" mode are called ground effect vehicles and are subject to International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requirements during flight in airplane mode.
According to the IMO classification, ekranoplans are divided into three types:
• Type A – ekranoplans that can only be operated at altitudes where the “screen effect” is present (flight altitude no greater than the wing chord size);
• Type B – ekranoplans capable of briefly and for a limited amount (a distance from the surface not exceeding 150 m) increasing the flight altitude above the screen;
• Type C – ekranoplans capable of lifting off from the screen for a long time to a height exceeding 150 m (ekranoplans).
In 1972, testing of the experimental Orlyonok began on the Volga, and the following year they moved to the Caspian Sea. The third and first serial MDE-150 entered service with the Navy on November 3, 1979. A total of 100 were built by the end of 1983. the fleet Three production Orlyonok ekranoplans were delivered. A total of 24 Project 904 ekranoplans were planned for construction, but only three were built. In 1984, Defense Minister D.F. Ustinov, who had supported the construction of such vehicles, died, and the program was canceled. The production ekranoplans were assigned to the 236th ekranoplan Division of the Caspian Flotilla's Landing Ship Brigade, and in late 1986, to the 11th Separate Air Group of the Black Sea Fleet. In 1984, the division was supposed to be redeployed to the Baltic Sea under its own power at altitudes of up to 1500 m. However, the flight never took place.
In 1975, a serious accident occurred: the aft section, along with the main engine, was torn off in flight. Thanks to the skillful and decisive actions of the crew and Alekseyev, who was on board, the ekranoplan was saved. The cause of the accident was the fragility of the hull material (later replaced with a different alloy). R. Alekseyev was removed from his position as chief ekranoplan designer and demoted to department head, with V.V. Sokolov becoming the new chief designer.
In 1988, two Orlyonoks participated in exercises to transfer troops from Baku to the Krasnovodsk area, alongside conventional landing ships and hovercraft. The ekranoplans took two hours, the hovercraft about six, and the conventional ships about a day.
Main performance characteristics of the USSR ekranoplans (developed by the Central Design Bureau for the SPK)
On August 28, 1992, the MDE-150 crashed and partially disintegrated in the Caspian Sea, killing one crew member. In stormy conditions, the ekranoplan capsized and was later sunk by Caspian Fleet ships. The surviving Orlyata craft were subsequently mothballed. In 2007, the MDE-160 was towed from Kaspiysk to Moscow, where it is on display at the Severnoye Tushino Museum and Park Complex.
Eaglet Museum, Moscow
The experimental ekranoplan SM-9 and the training aircraft UT-1 and Strizh were also built based on the Central Design Bureau for the SPK projects.
Work on projects for cargo and passenger ekranoplans was also carried out by other scientific organizations in the USSR, such as the P.O. Sukhoi Design Bureau and the G.M. Beriev Aviation Design Bureau in Taganrog under the leadership of Roberto Bartini (1968-1974).
Currently, the R.E. Alekseev Central Design Bureau for Special Design Bureau continues work on developing next-generation ekranoplan designs, such as the A-020-538, A-050-538, and A-300-538, among others. These ekranoplans are designed for passenger and cargo transportation, forest firefighting, rescue operations, and military missions.
The main technical characteristics of some modern ekranoplan projects of the Central Design Bureau for the Special Design Bureau named after R.E. Alekseev.
Ekranoplan project A-005-514
Ekranoplan project A-300-538
The Chaika-2 ekranoplan project
The Orion-10, Orion-12 (EK-12P Ivolga), Orion-14, Orion-20, and Orion-25 ground effect vehicles are manufactured in Petrozavodsk by the Orion Association. The Ivolga ground effect vehicle, which has been in trial operation at the Karelia Federal Security Service Directorate since November 2011, demonstrated a maximum range of 1150 km at an altitude of 0,8 m, and 1480 km at an altitude of 0,3 m with the same payload. (The Federal Border Service of the FSB of Russia received seven EK-12P Ivolga vehicles in the early 2010s.) Orion ground effect vehicles have also been exported, and the EK-12P Ivolga is manufactured in China under the designation CYG-11. Other Russian companies also build small ekranoplans in small quantities.
EK-12P "Ivolga"
Orion-20, Petrozavodsk
Orion 14
Orion 25
Russian ekranoplan "Aquaglide-2"
Russian ekranoplan "Aquaglide-5"
The development of ekranoplans is also underway in China, the USA, South Korea, Iran and other countries, with Soviet developments in this area being widely used.
Development of ekranoplans in China
The development of ekranoplans in China can be traced back to 1967, when the China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSRCC) in Beijing began designing and piloting the first ekranoplan, Project 961. Built and test-flown between 1968 and 1969, it was a single-seat, twin-fuselage aircraft. Its design was an original, purely Chinese development and had nothing in common with the Lippisch-type design.
In 1969, the CSSRC was relocated to Jingmen, Hubei Province, where it remains to this day. Today, it is China's most powerful research center for seaplanes and amphibious technology, boasting significant research and development capabilities and a testing laboratory in the northeast of the country.
In the early 80s, the 708th Research Institute of the China Shipbuilding Corporation, located in Shanghai and better known in the West as the Hovercraft Department of the Marine Design and Research Institute of China (MARIC), joined the problem of developing devices that use a dynamic air environment.
The Ekranoplan Development Center (presumably the 605th Research Institute), known in the West as the China Academy of Science and Technological Development (CASTD), was founded in August 1995 by order of the Chinese government. In the 1990s, private Chinese companies were also brought into the project.
Between 1968 and 2002 alone, no fewer than 18 types of ekranoplans were designed and built in China, and this work continues successfully. Furthermore, ekranoplans are widely exported. For example, in the spring of 2025, it was announced that 17 ekranoplans produced by the Jiangsu Hengchuan Company would be exported to the United Arab Emirates. The total contract value will reach several billion yuan.
Bohai Sea Monster
In the spring of 2025, a huge aircraft was spotted for the first time in a bay on Hainan Island. It is believed to be a military ekranoplan, although it is possible it could also be a seaplane-flying boat. Its wingspan is nearly 39 meters, its length is approximately 37 meters, and it is powered by four turboprop engines. In the West, it has already been dubbed the "Bohai Sea Monster."
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