Mohammed Daoud or From the Middle Ages to the Industrial Age
Mohammed Daoud
Russia and Afghanistan or Reforms "from Above"
In the article "Afghanistan: From Hellenism to Devastation. Or the Long Road to the Reforms of Mohammed Daoud" the talk was about historical the foundation on which the activities of a man who tried to create a full-fledged state from a conglomerate of tribes took place. Now let's begin a conversation about his reforms, but first about the decade that preceded them.
In the previous article I named Daoud among the outstanding reformers of the Arab-Turkic-Iranian world, the most successful of whom was Ataturk. In terms of initiating reforms, Afghanistan can be compared with the Russian Empire, where they were invariably carried out "from above."
The same scheme operated in the kingdom and earlier in the emirate: all reformers are representatives of the ruling House. And Daud was a typical representative of the reformers "from above": sardar, that is, prince, cousin of King Zahir Shah. Pashtun.
Born in 1909, he was educated at the elite Lyceum Habibia, then studied in France, although I believe he would have gone to Germany with greater pleasure; in any case, he did not hide his sympathy for it and advocated close cooperation with the Germans.
Why? Because, unlike London and Moscow, Berlin had fewer levers of influence on the kingdom's foreign policy, but could help in the implementation of a number of infrastructure projects, which it did, as discussed below.
Afghanistan between a rock and a hard place
In general, the Germanophilia of the elites, especially the military, was characteristic of many countries that embarked on the path of modernization at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Let us recall Marshal I. Oyama, Li Hongzhang, Enver Pasha, and Nicholas II's uncle, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich.
In the year of the beginning of the Second World War, Daud headed the Kabul garrison and the capital's military school. Considering the role of the army in the life of the kingdom, the positions occupied by the sardar were also of a political nature. Zahir Shah unconditionally trusted his ambitious relative.
What was Kabul’s policy in those difficult conditions – Afghanistan found itself between the fascist hammer and the anvil of the emerging anti-Hitler coalition –?
Officially, it was neutral, which suited London, since it guaranteed the security of British India, but it intensified Germany’s steps to draw Afghanistan into its orbit of influence with the aim of raising an uprising among the tribes living in the Indus basin.
To this end, the Germans developed the "Amanullah" plan to return the overthrown first and loyal Afghan king to the throne, hoping to carry out the operation from the territory of the USSR. However, the Kremlin was not enthusiastic about the idea, unofficially informing Kabul about the German undertaking being prepared. The Nazis themselves, however, rejected it.
Amanullah Khan is the king of Afghanistan who became Daoud's predecessor on the path of modernization and, one might say, laid the first stone in it
The occupation of Iran in September 1941 by the Red Army and the British had a decisive influence on Afghanistan's position, which placed the kingdom in the strategic encirclement of the anti-Hitler coalition.
The Sardar's Dangerous Game
The reason for the invasion of Iran was Reza Shah Pahlavi's refusal to expel fascist agents from the country. After the occupation, a similar demand was addressed to Kabul, which gave a positive answer despite Daoud's protest.
What was the reason for the Sardar's position? In the pre-war period, the Germans helped the kingdom in creating military and civil infrastructure, built airfields in Kabul and Herat, a highway from Kandahar to British India, German specialists taught in colleges and trained Afghan officers. Lufthansa carried out regular flights from Berlin to Kabul, becoming a kind of gateway to Europe for Afghanistan.
Moreover, Daoud and his entourage, impressed by the Wehrmacht's successes in 1939–1940, saw the Reich as a force capable of helping the Afghans recapture Punjab, once part of the Durrani empire.
The German command acted in unison with such desires, forming Task Force Afghanistan in the spring of 1941, comprising 17 divisions, to invade British India. And if the plan had been realized, the fate of both Daoud personally and Afghanistan would have been different.
It is unlikely that the Soviet and British soldiers occupying Iran thought that they were saving Afghanistan from becoming a Nazi satellite.
In essence, the occupation of Iran stopped the kingdom at a dangerous point. And yet the sardar abandoned the idea of partnership with the Reich only after the defeat of the fascists at Stalingrad, when he finally paid a visit to the Soviet embassy.
On the verge of bankruptcy
Afghanistan, which escaped the horrors of war, did not avoid the most acute economic crisis. The reasons are complex. These include the reduction of agricultural exports, inflation, and the prices of imported industrial goods, which increased sevenfold by 1945.
Of course, in such conditions, the state's income was significantly lower than its expenses, putting it on the brink of bankruptcy. Plus, the problem we touched on in previous materials was not solved: the semi-feudal, tribal nature of the kingdom slowed down taxation, and on top of that, one summer turned out to be excessively dry, and one winter was too frosty. This led to a reduction in sown areas and livestock, which was a shock for the country, where 94% of the population was peasantry with archaic forms of agriculture.
The government that preceded Daoud failed to address these issues.
Afghanistan goes global
In the sphere of foreign policy, three significant events for Afghanistan took place in the second half of the 1940s.
First, there was a rapprochement with the United States, which began during the war years, when the White House considered the kingdom as a territory for the transit of goods to the USSR under Lend-Lease.
The idea was not implemented, but the Americans opened a diplomatic mission in Afghanistan; however, relations in the first post-war decade were cool, since the US saw the kingdom on the periphery of its interests. Limited cooperation can hardly be called successful.
The project was an American-proposed irrigation system in the Helmand River Valley. But the mistakes made by overseas designers left the already-bursting Afghan economy under additional strain in the form of cost overruns to complete the project. Daoud would later call it a "monument to the United States' shame."
The second important event in the political life of the kingdom was its entry into the UN in 1946, which obliged Kabul to comply with the Convention on Human Rights, which was not easy given the realities of Afghanistan.
Durand Line
And finally, third. A significant problem for Afghanistan was the creation of Pakistan in 1947, since the border with it ran along the Durand Line imposed on Emir Abdur Rahman by the British in 1893, and, according to their own assessment, namely, according to the words of the secretary of the British embassy in Kabul, W. Fraser-Tytler:
It did not conform to any laws of geography, ethnography or strategy. It was nothing more than a line drawn on a map and ignored by the local population on both sides, a border that cut the nation in two and even separated related tribes, a border to which the authorities had no full access and which was guarded by a warlike and fanatical people...
Some Pashtuns ended up on the territory of a neighboring state, which the nationalist Daud could not put up with. However, until 1953, his ability to influence the situation was small. Moreover, at the end of the 1940s, the sardar, in terms of his political status, found himself in a difficult position. On the one hand, from 1946 to 1948, in the government of his uncle Zahir Shah Shah Mahmud, he successively held the post of Minister of the Interior, Ambassador to Paris, and Head of the Military Department, on the other hand, he came into conflict with the Prime Minister.
The reason? The combination of Daud's ambitions for power and the stalling of government reforms. For example, modernization, which was unthinkable without qualified personnel, required the launch of social elevators, and eventually the admission of the bourgeoisie to power. The Afghan one was only just emerging, and private capital was concentrated mainly in the hands of merchants who were not eager to participate in the state's modernization projects, which required significant financial injections from entrepreneurs.
The Shah Mahmud government faced a similar problem when it came up with the initiative to draw up a seven-year plan. With limited domestic financial resources, it asked for help from the United States and also tried to rely on them when building relations with Pakistan, which, given the White House's support for Islamabad, did not seem far-sighted. Washington refused to provide military assistance to Kabul and provided loans in very modest amounts.
In general, everything was not going well for Shah Mahmud. Daoud thought more broadly, understanding the need for larger-scale changes affecting not only the superstructure in the form of the economy, but also the base, that is, the various layers of society on which he sought to rely, evidence of which was the presence among his supporters of representatives of leftist views and future leaders of the DRA - N.M. Taraki and B. Karmal.
Having failed to work well with the prime minister, the sardar resigned in 1951, but in doing so he gained the support of the monarch, who was tired of being under the tutelage of his older uncles.
Bet on the young
And a couple of years later, Zahir Shah gave Daoud carte blanche, appointing him head of the cabinet while retaining the portfolio of defense minister. His brother, Mohammed Naim, headed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Daoud began reforms that went down in history as the "guided economy." Their main idea, no matter how paradoxical it may sound at first glance, was to transform the country from a semi-feudal to a capitalist one, based on a planned economy.
At the same time, the Prime Minister understood that implementing reforms using administrative methods alone would yield limited results; maximum involvement of the entire Afghan society and, above all, small and medium-sized businesses was needed. To this end, banks controlled by Daoud issued loans to entrepreneurs at lower interest rates than previously offered by moneylenders. Thus, a middle class gradually began to form in the kingdom.
The government's limited financial capacity was mentioned above, and therefore Daoud attracts foreign investment, but leaves the controlling stake in the hands of the state as a guarantee of its sovereignty.
He considered one of his main tasks to be the creation of domestic qualified personnel - a new intellectual elite, into whose ranks women also joined. In 1958, they were allowed to appear on the street with an open face, which, of course, caused a protest from the mullahs.
Kabul at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s.
In his confrontation with them, Daud repeatedly turned to students of Kabul University for support, and actively attracted young specialists graduating from it to work in government structures, including in leadership positions. The criteria were the desire to work, education, and abilities. And no nepotism, just as social status was unimportant, which played a significant role in the middle of the last century in a state with unconquered vestiges of feudalism.
Poverty is the scourge of Afghanistan. Many young professionals have not escaped it. Daud ordered the construction of housing for them under a preferential mortgage program.
But poverty went hand in hand with inflation-induced price increases. Sardar checked this by introducing fixed prices on essential commodities.
The growth in the number of skilled workers required the adoption of appropriate legislation. And the prime minister is fulfilling this task: a 45-hour workweek is being established, overtime is being paid, the recently unthinkable social package is being increased, pensions are growing, and courses are being introduced to eliminate another scourge of Afghanistan – illiteracy.
Another non-trivial step by Daud was reflected in the publication of reports on government activities, economic plans and budgets intended for their implementation in the press. Previously, nothing like this could have happened in the kingdom: what kind of reports could a government formed by a monarch give to subjects, among whom, in addition to everything else, there is an insignificant percentage of literate people?
However, the sardar changes the face of Afghanistan, transforming its society from semi-feudal and tribal to civil, making it not just an object, but an interested participant in industrialization, in the implementation of which impressive results were achieved. Hydroelectric power stations were built: "Puli-Khumri", "Mahi-Par", "Baghlan". And this is not a complete list.
Since Afghanistan has always been famous for its fabrics, the weaving industry was actively developed through the construction of appropriate factories, in particular, the Balkh factory was built in Mazar-i-Sharif.
The Naglu hydroelectric power station, built by the USSR during the rule of Daoud
The problem of any mountain state is a weak road network, which, under the conditions of semi-feudal relations, led to the isolation of regions and separatist tendencies of tribal elites.
The Prime Minister built a network of highways connecting Kabul, Herat, and Kandahar. Modern highways ran through the Hindu Kush ranges and the Salang Pass.
Daud also planned to build the country's first nuclear power plant with Soviet assistance, but the project was never implemented due to the prime minister's resignation. Resignations…
When relatives are against
Successes are successes, but there were also plenty of problems: poverty was not completely overcome, and rapid transformation of society is always painful – let’s remember the pre-war USSR.
Not only reactionary mullahs and conservative layers of society who wanted to live in the old way, but also some representatives of the royal family put spokes in the wheels of their relative. It was not that they opposed the reforms, no, they were rather worried about the strengthening of the personality of the sardar's power, the threat of depriving them of their status as ruling elite, the growth of Daud's authority in the army, where he placed young capable officers loyal to him in command positions, which, however, would later come back to haunt him.
In short, opposition to the reforms grew and eventually led to Dawood's resignation. This, as well as the sardar's foreign policy, his return to power and fall, will be discussed in the next article.
Использованная литература:
Boyko V.S. The liberal experiment in Afghanistan and the rise of Muhammad Daoud in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Gareev M. My last war. (Afghanistan without Soviet troops). – M.: NPO "INSAN", 1996.
Yezhov G. Sardar Mohammad Daoud Khan.
Sarmachar P. M. Daoud Khan: Afghanistan's Radical Economic Attempt and Its Consequences.
Slinkin M.F. Muhammad Dawood: Political Portrait.
Martynkin A., Khomenko S. The Role of Islam in the Intra-Afghan Conflict in the Last Quarter of the 20th – Early 21st Centuries.
Bulatov Yu.A. Kabul: the troubled summer of 1941 (Before the beginning of the Great Patriotic War).
History of the Armed Forces of Afghanistan. 1747 - 1977 / Ed. Yu. V. Gankovsky. Moscow: Nauka, Main Editorial Board of Eastern Literature, 1985
Slinkin M.F. Muhammad Dawood. Political Portrait.
Poya S. The main aspects of the new economic policy of the Prime Minister of Afghanistan Muhammad Daoud Khan. 1953 – 1963..
Priymachuk D.V. Internal and External Determinants of the Political Process in Afghanistan (1945-1992).
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