"Berlin was lost to us"
Paratroopers of the American 101st Division land in a field in Holland. September 17, 1944.
General situation
At the end of August 1944, the German Army Group B, led by Field Marshal Model, retreated from Northern France to the borders of Germany on the Siegfried Line (Operation Cobra: Defeat of the German Army in Northern France). Approaching the Seine, where all the bridges had been destroyed, the Nazis forced the river across temporary crossings, despite the complete dominance of the British and Americans in the air. The German Army Group "G" of General Blaskowitz retreated from southern France. Pursuing the enemy along the entire front, the allied forces encountered almost no resistance (How the Allies allowed the German army to quietly leave Southern France).
German military historian Kurt von Tippelskirch in his "Stories "When the German front in France collapsed at the end of August, a hasty evacuation of the country by German troops began. In panic disorder, without any discipline whatsoever, an unstoppable stream of military and civil institutions, which had become superfluous, poured towards the Rhine and beyond the Rhine. Their flight not only presented a shocking picture of defeat, it had a repulsive effect on their compatriots, who saw with what greed the fugitives dragged with them all sorts of supplies, especially alcoholic beverages."
Soldiers of the 39th Infantry Brigade as part of the 3rd tank U.S. Army divisions cross the Siegfried Line. In the foreground is a Sherman medium tank (M4A2 Sherman). September 1944.
A situation arose on the Western Front in which the American armies could outflank the main forces of Army Group B from the south as they advanced from the Marne River to Brussels and Antwerp and destroy them. This created the conditions for an invasion of Western Germany and the Ruhr. There was another possibility: to send the mobile units of the American army from the area east of Paris to the south, and the troops of German Army Group G, which were retreating up the Rhone River valley, would find themselves in a hopeless situation.
None of these opportunities for the complete destruction of the German Western Front were used by the Allies. Apparently, the top leadership of Britain and the USA believed that Germany would soon capitulate. And in London they wanted to use the combat potential of the Third Reich against the Russian communists, who allegedly threatened the freedom of Western Europe.
Advance to the Netherlands
The Allied forces advanced on a broad front, pushing back the enemy. The main attack was carried out by the British 21st Army Group of Field Marshal Montgomery (2nd British and 1st Canadian armies). With the support of the 1st American Army, it advanced along the Pas-de-Calais coast in the general direction of Antwerp and Aachen. Bradley's American 12th Army Group (1st and 3rd American armies) advanced in the Ruhr and Saar directions.
The Belgian Resistance began its uprising in early September 1944. The rebels, taking advantage of the collapse of the German defense, occupied entire cities and provinces even before the Allies arrived.
British Cruiser Mk. VIII Cromwell and M5 Stuart tanks of the Guards Armoured Division drive past German prisoners of war during the advance on Brussels at Halle, September 3, 1944.
On September 3, 1944, the 2nd British Army entered Brussels, and the next day, Antwerp, which had been liberated by the rebels. Having entered Antwerp, the Allies did not take measures to clear the approaches to it from the sea and obtain a port for supplying troops.
The further advance of the British to the mouth of the Scheldt was supposed to lead to the formation of a Dunkirk pocket for the German 15th Army. However, Montgomery and the Allied Commander-in-Chief Eisenhower abandoned this idea and sent the 2nd Army to the Ruhr area to envelop it from the north. Divisions of the Canadian army besieged the ports of Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk and pursued the German 15th Army retreating to the mouth of the Scheldt.
German prisoners of war in a cage at the Antwerp Zoo
The German 12th and 7st armies retreated in front of the American 1th Army Group. The 1st American army advanced 8-75 km in 100 days, but had not yet reached the German border. The 3rd American army reached the Moselle River. The 7th German army retreated to the line east of Charlesville, Namur, Eerschot, the 1st German army to the line Nancy, Metz and Sedan.
The advance of the allied armies slowed significantly in early September. Many tanks and other equipment broke down after long marches, requiring repairs. Troop supplies, namely fuel, worsened. Army depots on the coast remained 400-500 km from the advancing troops. Theft, especially of gasoline and cigarettes, flourished among the allies, especially the Americans. The spirit of capitalism, many tried to profit from the war.
Canadian gunners prepare a captured German gun for battle near Dunkirk.
In his memoirs, Eisenhower noted: “We received reliable information that speculation in these items was flourishing in Paris and that people from the supply service were operating on the black market… In this case, it turned out that practically the entire unit had turned into an organized gang of robbers and were selling these items by the truckload and trainload.”
Tactical activity has dropped aviationThe aircraft were based in southern England, Normandy and Brittany, and could no longer actively support the troops that had advanced.
Canadian gunners fire a 94mm anti-aircraft gun near Dunkirk, France.
The situation of the German troops
Taking advantage of the fact that the Allies did not conduct decisive operations to encircle and destroy the troops retreating from France, Hitler's Headquarters was able to overcome the critical situation on the Western Front. The German army retreated to the Siegfried Line. American attempts to overcome this line on the fly were repelled.
On September 12, Army Group G, retreating from southern France, made contact with Army Group B in the Nancy area. German forces in the north had successfully withdrawn from the Dunkirk area. The German armies had created a united front that ran along the southern border of Holland, along the western border of Germany to Luxembourg and further south, from Metz to Montbéliard on the Swiss border. At the same time, German forces retained their combat capability.
German soldiers on the march during the battle for Arnhem. September 1944.
As a result, the Allies liberated France and most of Belgium between June 6 and September 12, 1944. The Germans lost about 400 men in France (almost half of whom ended up in the "fortress cities" on the coast) and 1 tanks and other heavy weapons. By the time the Allies invaded France, the Nazis had 300 million men and almost 1,5 tanks there. The Germans lost 2 divisions completely, and 000 divisions that had suffered heavy losses were reformed into battle groups. The Allies' losses during the same period amounted to 10 men killed, wounded, and missing (out of 12 million men).
The German General Headquarters sought to restore the front in the West as quickly as possible. In order to prevent enemy troops from breaking through into Germany, urgent measures were taken to strengthen the defense on the western border. Particular attention was paid to the defense of the Ruhr, Saar, and the mouth of the Scheldt. Divisions were restored. The error in the command system in the West was corrected. Field Marshal von Rundstedt again headed all armed forces on the Western Front. Model now commanded only Army Group B.
Commander-in-Chief of the West Troops Rundstedt was promised four infantry divisions, two tank brigades, and other units and subdivisions. Total mobilization was underway in Germany. 22 Volksgrenadier (militia) divisions were being formed for the Western Front.
German scooter riders on the march in the Arnhem area during Operation Market Garden
German soldiers and a StuG III self-propelled gun in Arnhem during Operation Market Garden. September 19, 1944.
Allied Strategy
The emergence of a new German defensive front and the forced suspension of the offensive forced the Allied command to begin developing a new strategy. American Generals Bradley and Patton proposed crossing the Rhine in the area of Wiesbaden, Mannheim and further south in order to reach Tours and Saar. Montgomery proposed delivering the main blow north of the Ardennes and bypassing the Ruhr region from the north. In other words, these were proposals for a concentrated blow.
However, Commander-in-Chief Eisenhower had his own plan, which was based on the concept of a broad front strategy. It envisaged an offensive by the Allied armies along the entire Western Front.
The Allied strategy in Europe was considered at the Second Quebec Conference in Canada, which took place from September 11–16, 1944. The conference decided to leave the American 5th Army in Italy until the peninsula was completely liberated. Then it was proposed to seize Istria and prepare for an invasion of Austria.
The basic provisions of Eisenhower's plan were also approved: an offensive on a broad front with the main attack on the left flank to strike at the Ruhr and Saar (the main economic regions of Germany). Occupy central Germany and other key areas of Europe before Russian troops appear there.
Soon Eisenhower's headquarters approved the final plan for further operations in the European theater. The British 21st Army Group was to bypass the Ruhr region from the north, while the American 12th Army Group was to advance southward in the central direction. The 6th Army Group in southern France (the American 7th and French 1st armies) was tasked with reaching the southwestern section of the Franco-German border.
W. Churchill greets US President F. Roosevelt during the Second Quebec Conference. September 11, 1944.
Operation Dutch
The Allies planned to bypass the Siegfried Line from the north, through the Netherlands. For this, the 21st Army Group (2nd British and 1st Canadian armies) under the command of Field Marshal Montgomery and a separate airborne corps from the 1st Airborne Army (1 British, 2 American divisions and a Polish brigade) were used.
The plan of the operation envisaged the capture of a bridgehead on the Lower Rhine and the clearing of the enemy from the sea approaches to Antwerp. The main attack was carried out by the 2nd British Army (30th Corps) and the airborne corps (Operation Market Garden) with the aim of capturing the main crossings over the Maas, Waal and Neder Rijn rivers in the areas of Grave, Nijmegen, Arnhem and, to the north, the exit to the Zuider Zee coast. This led to the isolation of German troops in the Netherlands and the creation of favorable conditions for the invasion of Germany. About 650 aircraft were involved in air support, for artillery 30 guns and mortars (880 per 136 km of the front) were allocated for the preparation and support of the offensive of the 1th Corps.
Allied paratroopers load into C-47 Dakota aircraft prior to Operation Market Garden, September 17, 1944.
American paratroopers board a C-47 aircraft during Operation Market Garden.
The 1st Canadian Army was to occupy the ports of Boulogne and Calais, which were still held by the Germans, and then develop an offensive on Rotterdam.
The Allies were confronted on the line northeast of Bruges, north of Antwerp, and the Albert Canal (Kampin Canal) by the 15th and 1st Parachute Armies of the German Army Group B.
Operation Market Garden
On September 17, 1944, the British air force began landing airborne divisions (Operation Market). It was one of the largest airborne landings in world history. 1 transport aircraft, 344 gliders, 491 bombers and 1 fighters took to the air. The second wave, which began the following morning, consisted of 113 transport aircraft and 1 gliders with tugs.
In total, more than 34 soldiers and officers, 568 artillery pieces, and 1 vehicles were landed behind enemy lines. During the entire operation, 926 tons of cargo were delivered to the location of three airborne divisions.
The landing force could not be landed in the designated areas and was scattered over a large area. However, the landing of entire airborne divisions was unexpected for the Germans. At first, resistance was minimal. Therefore, on the very first day, the paratroopers were able to capture bridges over the Zuid-Willem Canal at Veghel (101st US Airborne Division), over the Maas at Grave (82nd US Airborne Division) and over the Maas-Waal Canal.
The British paratroopers dropped west of Arnhem (the 1st British Airborne Division and the Polish Brigade) captured the northern part of the Lower Rhine. At the same time, the Americans dropped paratroopers into enemy territory, facilitating the British offensive.
British paratroopers land in the Wolfheze area during Operation Market Garden. The picture shows the landing of Airspeed AS. 51 Horsa gliders. September 17, 1944.
British paratroopers of the 1st Battalion, Border Regiment, in positions on Van Lennepweg Street in Oosterbeek, await enemy attack. September 20, 1944.
Using the operation of the landing corps, with the support of artillery and aviation, the 30th Corps of the 2nd English Army began an offensive (Operation Garden). The forces of the 30th Corps (two infantry and one tank division) outnumbered the enemy in infantry by two times, and in tanks and aviation the numerical advantage was absolute.
However, they had to advance along one highway, since the terrain to the right and left of it was impassable for tanks. Damage to one tank in front would lead to a traffic jam and a halt of the entire column. Therefore, the advance was slow. The vanguard of the corps reached the southern outskirts of Eindhoven only towards the end of September 18.
The start of the operation was successful: in two days of fighting, the allies penetrated 65 km into enemy territory. The 30th Corps joined the 101st and then the 82nd Divisions. On September 20, the allies reached Nijmegen and crossed the Waal River. However, the 8th and 12th Corps of the 2nd English Army (on the flanks of the 30th Corps) acted passively and did not complete their mission. On September 19, the weather worsened, and aviation could no longer actively support the advancing divisions. The Allied command underestimated the enemy.
The US 82nd Airborne Division paratroopers land from C-47 Skytrains during Operation Market Garden. Landing WACO CG-4A Hadrian gliders are in the foreground. September 23, 1944.
The Germans acted skillfully and actively. Even before the start of the operation, the High Command "West" strengthened the defense in Holland. The 1st Airborne Army was formed, which was tasked with defending the Campine Canal from Antwerp to Maastricht. When the British 30th Corps, in cooperation with the landing forces, began to penetrate the German defense, the German command quickly began to transfer troops from the 15th and 7th armies to the breakthrough site.
Field Marshal Rundstedt decided to first prevent the breakthrough on the flanks from widening, and then to bring up reinforcements and cut off the wedge. On September 22, the Germans cut off the road at Eindhoven. The main forces of the 30th Corps and the 1st Airborne Army were cut off from their rear. The 1st British Airborne Division was routed. Its remnants (2 fighters) broke through to Nijmegen after eight days of heavy fighting.
After this, the main efforts of the 2nd English Army were directed at restoring communications with the strike group. After 4 days of stubborn fighting and with the active support of the Air Force, the road was recaptured. However, the British could no longer advance further. On September 28, the offensive was stopped.
The offensive of the 12th and 6th Army Groups in the Ruhr and Saar directions, which was carried out at the same time, did not bring any tangible results. The 1st Canadian Army occupied the ports of Boulogne and Calais at the end of September and blockaded Dunkirk. One corps advanced to the mouth of the Scheldt northwest of Antwerp.
Ninety-nine German officers captured by Anglo-Canadian troops near the city of Boulogne. September 99, 19.
After regrouping on October 22, the British army attacked from the area southeast of Grave on Breda into the rear of the 15th German Army and forced it to retreat. The 1st Canadian Army, having landed troops on the islands of Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland, moved on to pursue the enemy. By November 10, the troops of the 21st Army Group cleared the mouth of the Scheldt River and reached the Maas from Grave to the mouth.
Overall, Operation Holland remained unfinished. In 55 days, the Allied forces advanced 90–45 km on a 200 km front. The Allies were able to liberate a significant part of the Netherlands. American airborne divisions consistently ensured this advance by capturing bridges. However, the bridge at Arnhem, captured by British and Polish paratroopers, really was “too far” for the Allies. Arnhem remained in the hands of German troops.
German Sd. Kfz 10/4 self-propelled anti-aircraft gun with 20 mm Flak 30/38 anti-aircraft gun on the Arnhem square
The main strategic goal of the operation – opening the way for the invasion of Germany through the northwest of the country – was not achieved. The British and Americans were unable to immediately pave the way to Germany.
Montgomery admitted in his memoirs: "Berlin was lost to us when we failed to develop a good operational plan in August 1944, after the victory in Normandy."
A group of British paratroopers captured by German troops in Arnhem
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