Fight for the Caucasus. Late XVI - XVII centuries
Board of Emperor Fedor Ivanovich
In 1590-s, Russia began to restore its position in the Caucasus. On the river Sunzha, on the place where Tersky town previously stood, a new town was built. The Crimean Khanate tried to restore the old situation, forcing the Russians to leave the North Caucasus. In 1591-1592 Crimean Tatars raided the Russian regions, but without much success. The Moscow government was not going to leave Sunzha.
In 1594, the emperor Fedor Ivanovich sent a letter to the Ottoman Sultan Murad III. It was reported that the Kabardian tribes, the “mountain Cherkasy”, the Shamkhals are subjects of the Russian kingdom, that the fortresses “in the Kabardian land and Shevkal”, on the Terek and Sunzha were set up by the “petition” of the local population and for their saving. Thus, Moscow after the Livonian War was restoring its position in the North Caucasus. True, the Moscow government did not want to conflict with the powerful Ottoman Empire, and therefore left the Ottomans the right of free passage through the Russian-controlled lands in Derbent, Shemakha, Baku and other Transcaucasian lands "without any detention or clue." At the same time, the Russians refused to let in the Crimean Tatars. The cavalry of the Crimean Khan several times tried to break through to the rear of Persia along the shore of the Caspian Sea, but was stopped by Russian fortifications. The Crimean Tatars did not dare to go on the assault, limiting themselves to “diplomatic protests” and the ruin of the surrounding lands.
It must be said that at this time the Turks achieved great success in the Caucasus. During the reign of Murad III (1574 — 1595), the Ottoman army, having considerable numerical and technical superiority over the Persian troops, occupied the regions of Georgia and Armenia (1579 year), the southern and western shores of the Caspian Sea (1580 year). In 1585, the main forces of the Persian army were defeated and the Turks occupied the territories of modern Azerbaijan. The devastating campaigns of the Turkish-Tatar troops in Transcaucasia continued until the 1589 year. The South Caucasus has become destitute. A significant part of the local population was slaughtered or stolen into slavery, some fled. Many cities and villages, including such centers as Tabriz, Ganj, Shemakha, were severely devastated. In 1590, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed between Turkey and Persia. According to him, vast areas — most of Azerbaijan and Transcaucasia, including the former Iranian capital, Tabriz, Kurdistan, Luristan, and Khuzestan - crossed over to the Ottoman Empire.
The Russian kingdom in these years is fixed not only on Sunzha. In 1588-1589, at the request of Kabarda and Georgian Kakheti, Turki fortress was erected near the mouth of the Terek. This fortress should not be confused with the old Turkes, which were founded in 1563, upstream of the Terek, near Kabarda. Having rebuilt the new Turks, the Russian troops began to act against Shamkhal Tarkovsky, who at that time began to focus on Turkey. Russian troops tried to force their way through the possessions of Shamkhal (the title of the rulers of Dagestan) in the South Caucasus, in order to render assistance to Eastern Georgia. But with the beginning of the Time of Troubles and intervention, such actions were curtailed.
The first significant clashes with the mountaineers began during the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich. By the highest decree, troops were sent to the Terek to protect their subjects, that is, the Kabardians, which were disturbed by the Highlanders. In addition, the fight against the mountaineers was associated with requests for help from Kakheti. Under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, Kakhetian Tsar Alexander II was asked for Russian citizenship (1574 — 1601, 1602 — 1605). Kakheti was in a difficult position, maneuvering between the Ottoman Empire and Persia. In addition, the Georgians suffered greatly from the raids of the Highlanders. In 1587, the Georgian-Russian Union was established. In 1589, the Kakhetian king received official support from the Russian sovereign.
In 1594, the Russian government decided to strengthen Turki. Prince Andrey Khvorostinin's squad was sent to the Terek. Upon arrival, Russian troops took the city of Tarki, the capital of Shamkhalism. However, they could not keep the city. Dagestanis and Kumyks cut communications, causing food shortages. The unusual climate worsened the situation even more, mass diseases began. In the ranks left no more than half the unit. Khvorostinin began to withdraw soldiers and the detachment went to his own, but lost three-quarters of the squad.
It must be said that the attack on Shamkhalism should have come from two directions, from the Russian possessions and Kakheti, but the Georgians did not fulfill their obligations. Georgian ambassadors in Moscow reported that “the road is tight,” “a strong place,” just around the corner, so Kakheti will not send people.
Board of Boris Godunov. Karaman battle 1605 of the year
Boris Godunov continued the policy of gradually strengthening Russian positions in the Caucasus. Russian successfully fought on Sulak and Terek. However, a new large-scale expedition against Shamkhalism ended with a heavy defeat and the death of thousands of warriors. Kakheti again asked for help from the Russian sovereign: "asking for help from him (Boris Godunov) on Gorki Cherkas that they (Kakhetians) are oppressed with them." Moscow sent the army to Dagestan under the command of the governor Ivan Buturlin and Osip Plescheev. The Kakhetians again promised an auxiliary army.
The beginning of the campaign was successful: 10-th. The Russian army (3 Streltsy Regiment, Terek Cossacks and Nogai) captured Tarki. The battle was fierce, the city streets were littered with enemy bodies. Before the battle, the troops listened to a speech in which they were reminded of the brothers who had fallen here and of Russian blood, who had been crying out for revenge. Shamkhal Surkhay II fled to the Avar Khan. The Russians began to build fortresses in Tarki, on Sulak (Koisu) and Aktash. Separate Russian detachments, without encountering serious resistance, collected food, drove away herds and herds. However, the Russian troops were not ready for a long war in the mountains, the governor could not resolve the issue with the regular supply of the corps. The Kumyks hid all the bread in the hiding places, started a partisan war against the Russians, attacking small detachments sent in search of provisions. Kakhetians again deceived and did not send auxiliary troops.
Then the Russian commanders in the late autumn, unable to feed the whole army, sent about half of the corps - about 5 thousand soldiers, for wintering in Astrakhan. The Russian army on the way to Astrakhan was attacked by large Kumyk forces. However, after a bloody battle, the attackers were defeated and retreated, losing about 3 thousand people.
At this time, the situation finally developed not in favor of the Russian detachment. Shamkhal "having sent to Turs (Turkish) tsar (sultan), asking for help from him; he sent many troops to their aid. ” The younger brother of Shamkhal Surkhai, Soltan-Mut, managed to raise the approach of the Turkish reinforcements, practically, all the Dagestan peoples against the invasion of the “infidels.” In early spring, the Dagestan-Turkish army laid siege to the Russian fortifications on Sulak. The head of a small detachment of voivod V.T. Dolgorukov burned down the fortifications and left for the Terek by sea. The small garrison on Aktash did the same. Buturlin's garrison in Tarki was alone. Soltan-Mut with the Turkish pashi offered to the Russian commanders to capitulate, but they refused. Then the Turks and the Highlanders went to storm. Part of the wall and the tower were blown up, the Russian garrison suffered heavy losses. The Janissaries and Dagestanis attempted to break into the fortress, but during the fierce battle the Russian soldiers repelled all attacks. Both sides suffered heavy losses. However, the situation was critical; there was no opportunity to defend a half-destroyed fortress. The main Turkish Pasha and Shamkhal made a secondary offer to surrender the fortress, guaranteeing Buturlin’s unimpeded access to the Russian possessions. In addition, Shamkhal undertook to provide care for seriously ill and wounded Russians, who had to be left in Tarki. Upon recovery, they were obliged to be released to the Terek.
Karamanskaya battle. A heavily-thinned Russian squad moved toward Sulak. Shamkhal provided the Russians with an amanat hostage, supposedly his son, to provide guarantees. One source reports that he was a condemned to death criminal. Shamkhal also demanded that Buturlin leave his son and the boyar children who distinguished themselves in battle. But the Russian voivode was firm and Shamkhal was forced to give up his claims.
Leaving the sick and wounded in the care of the Shamkhaltsevs, the Russian detachment with songs reached out for Sulak. Dagestanis also had a holiday - the end of fasting in the month of Ramadan (uraza-bayram). On the same day, the wedding of Shamkhal and the daughter of the Avar Khan took place. During the festival, Muslim clerics decided to decorate the day with a good cause for Muslims - the release of Shamkhal and his associates from the oath given to this “infidel”. Muslim warriors, burning with the desire to avenge the death of their comrades, immediately rushed in pursuit.
20-thousand The army broke up into several detachments and overtook the Russians beyond the Ozen swamps at the mouth of the river Shura-ozen. The attack was sudden, the Russian warriors did not manage to organize a fortified camp and meet the enemy with a "fiery battle". A violent hand-to-hand fight began. As a result, the outcome of the battle decided the numerical superiority of the Shamkhal warriors. The Russian detachment was divided into separate groups that fought with the bitterness of the doomed. One of the first, in the eyes of his father - the governor Buturlin, killed his young son Fedor.
The mountaineers, in anticipation of great losses, offered Russian soldiers to quit weapon. “The Russians unanimously doomed themselves to glorious death; fought with the enemy evil and numerous in manuscript, a man with a man, one with three, fearing not death, but captivity ”. The bloody battle lasted for several hours, before almost all Russian soldiers fell killed or seriously wounded. Voivods Ivan Buturlin and his son Fedor, Osip Pleshcheyev and his sons Bogdan and Lev, Ivan Poleva, Ivan Isupov and other commanders were killed in the battle. Most of the seriously wounded, who were captured, killed. Only a few of the wounded were left alive - Prince Vladimir Bakhteyarov, the son of I. Buturlin - Petr, and the archers' heads, Athanasius the Good and the Smirny Mamatov. The sick and wounded Russians, who remained in Tarki, were tortured and "died an agonizing death."
These were the first serious Russian clashes with the peoples of Dagestan and they did not bode well. In addition, the actions of the Russian kingdom in the North Caucasus caused serious irritation to the Persian rulers and the Brilliant Ports. Persia and Turkey did not want to see new opponents in the Caucasus, and also “infidels”. The Ottoman Empire and Persia in this period had too strong positions in the Caucasus for Russia to be able to resist them on an equal footing. The Caucasus was still a distant South for the Russian state, where there was only one serious base for further advancement - Astrakhan. This predetermined the defeat of 1605 of the year. Years of hard work were needed in preparing positions, fortified lines, establishing contacts with local rulers, diplomacy on the principle of "divide and conquer", "carrot and stick". It was necessary to attract large financial and material, human resources in order to pacify this huge land and knock out the Turks and Persians from there. Russia of the end of the 16 of the beginning of the 17 of the centuries simply didn’t have objective opportunities to join a significant part of the Caucasus. They will appear much later, already at the end of 18 and the beginning of 19 centuries.
It is necessary to take into account the factor of the Time of Troubles. Smoot for a long time distracted all the forces of the Russian state to internal problems. And after the Time of Troubles was over, Russia had to solve, first of all, the foreign policy problems associated with the Western Russian lands and the Commonwealth. Therefore, Russia for many decades stopped significant military activities in the Caucasus. But at the same time, the Russian kingdom did not interrupt its cultural contacts with co-religionists, primarily with Christian Georgia. Although active assistance, for the reasons stated could not. The development of mutually beneficial economic ties with the region continued.
Expansion of Turkey and Persia
At this time, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate greatly strengthened their expansion in the Caucasus. Turks and Crimean Tatars tried to subjugate the Adighes and Kabardians, to plant Islam among them. However, the Turks did not achieve much success in this matter. Islam was adopted only by the feudal elite of the Adyghes, who were inclined towards this religion during the time of the Golden Horde. The bulk of the Circassians continued to adhere to semi-Christian, semi-pagan beliefs. Bakhchisarai and Istanbul did not succeed in reaching the complete submission of the Adyg tribes, part of the princes cooperated with the Turks and Tatars, but only in their own interests, in order to use them in the struggle with their neighbors.
As noted above, the Turks under Sultan Murad III achieved great success, by 1590 putting control of a large part of the South Caucasus. But soon the Persians will take revenge. The Persian Shah Abbas I (rules in 1587 - 1629 years) will streamline the financial system, remove the Kyzylbashs (Turks) from ruling the country, forming their personal protection solely from the ghouls (brought up in the Islamic traditions of captured boys from among Armenians, Georgians or Circassians). Abbas, with the help of British instructors, will create a regular army, mostly armed with firearms and even equipped with artillery. This will allow him to win a number of victories over the nomadic Uzbeks, driving them out of northeastern Iran and the Afghan tribes. He would subjugate Khorasan, Herat, Gilan, Mazanderan, Lurestan and Kandahar, extending his dominion over much of Afghanistan. After this, Abbas the Great will turn the army against Turkey.
In the Iranian-Turkish war 1603 — 1612. the Persians are already up. The situation for the war was favorable: the rear was cleaned, and the Turks were connected with the war with Austria. The Persians will destroy the Turkish garrisons in Azerbaijan, conquer Eastern Armenia. Luristan, Eastern Georgia and South Kurdistan were also captured. It is clear that the local Caucasian population will again suffer greatly, being between the hammer and the anvil. Thus, the Persians from Armenia will relocate more than 300 thousand people to the depths of Iran. Abbas showed incredible cruelty to the local population, surprising even in those times far from humanity. The Turkish army will make several incursions into Azerbaijan, but will fail. The Istanbul Peace Treaty of November 20 1612 of the year approved the conquest of Persia. Turkey will have to admit defeat, but only for a while, soon the struggle will continue.
The rule of the Turks in the Transcaucasus was replaced by the no less cruel yoke of the Persians. Zulfigar-Shah Karamanly was appointed the ruler of Shemakhi. By the will of the Shah, Derbent Viceroy was formed, which became a springboard for penetration into Dagestan. From Derbent, Persian troops began to raid Dagestan villages. Tsar of Kakheti Alexander sent a letter to the Russian commanders in Terki, where he said that Lezgin and Shevkale people beat their heads and "want to be in the age-old serfs under his royal hand."
To be continued ...
In 1590-s, Russia began to restore its position in the Caucasus. On the river Sunzha, on the place where Tersky town previously stood, a new town was built. The Crimean Khanate tried to restore the old situation, forcing the Russians to leave the North Caucasus. In 1591-1592 Crimean Tatars raided the Russian regions, but without much success. The Moscow government was not going to leave Sunzha.
In 1594, the emperor Fedor Ivanovich sent a letter to the Ottoman Sultan Murad III. It was reported that the Kabardian tribes, the “mountain Cherkasy”, the Shamkhals are subjects of the Russian kingdom, that the fortresses “in the Kabardian land and Shevkal”, on the Terek and Sunzha were set up by the “petition” of the local population and for their saving. Thus, Moscow after the Livonian War was restoring its position in the North Caucasus. True, the Moscow government did not want to conflict with the powerful Ottoman Empire, and therefore left the Ottomans the right of free passage through the Russian-controlled lands in Derbent, Shemakha, Baku and other Transcaucasian lands "without any detention or clue." At the same time, the Russians refused to let in the Crimean Tatars. The cavalry of the Crimean Khan several times tried to break through to the rear of Persia along the shore of the Caspian Sea, but was stopped by Russian fortifications. The Crimean Tatars did not dare to go on the assault, limiting themselves to “diplomatic protests” and the ruin of the surrounding lands.
It must be said that at this time the Turks achieved great success in the Caucasus. During the reign of Murad III (1574 — 1595), the Ottoman army, having considerable numerical and technical superiority over the Persian troops, occupied the regions of Georgia and Armenia (1579 year), the southern and western shores of the Caspian Sea (1580 year). In 1585, the main forces of the Persian army were defeated and the Turks occupied the territories of modern Azerbaijan. The devastating campaigns of the Turkish-Tatar troops in Transcaucasia continued until the 1589 year. The South Caucasus has become destitute. A significant part of the local population was slaughtered or stolen into slavery, some fled. Many cities and villages, including such centers as Tabriz, Ganj, Shemakha, were severely devastated. In 1590, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed between Turkey and Persia. According to him, vast areas — most of Azerbaijan and Transcaucasia, including the former Iranian capital, Tabriz, Kurdistan, Luristan, and Khuzestan - crossed over to the Ottoman Empire.
The Russian kingdom in these years is fixed not only on Sunzha. In 1588-1589, at the request of Kabarda and Georgian Kakheti, Turki fortress was erected near the mouth of the Terek. This fortress should not be confused with the old Turkes, which were founded in 1563, upstream of the Terek, near Kabarda. Having rebuilt the new Turks, the Russian troops began to act against Shamkhal Tarkovsky, who at that time began to focus on Turkey. Russian troops tried to force their way through the possessions of Shamkhal (the title of the rulers of Dagestan) in the South Caucasus, in order to render assistance to Eastern Georgia. But with the beginning of the Time of Troubles and intervention, such actions were curtailed.
The first significant clashes with the mountaineers began during the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich. By the highest decree, troops were sent to the Terek to protect their subjects, that is, the Kabardians, which were disturbed by the Highlanders. In addition, the fight against the mountaineers was associated with requests for help from Kakheti. Under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, Kakhetian Tsar Alexander II was asked for Russian citizenship (1574 — 1601, 1602 — 1605). Kakheti was in a difficult position, maneuvering between the Ottoman Empire and Persia. In addition, the Georgians suffered greatly from the raids of the Highlanders. In 1587, the Georgian-Russian Union was established. In 1589, the Kakhetian king received official support from the Russian sovereign.
In 1594, the Russian government decided to strengthen Turki. Prince Andrey Khvorostinin's squad was sent to the Terek. Upon arrival, Russian troops took the city of Tarki, the capital of Shamkhalism. However, they could not keep the city. Dagestanis and Kumyks cut communications, causing food shortages. The unusual climate worsened the situation even more, mass diseases began. In the ranks left no more than half the unit. Khvorostinin began to withdraw soldiers and the detachment went to his own, but lost three-quarters of the squad.
It must be said that the attack on Shamkhalism should have come from two directions, from the Russian possessions and Kakheti, but the Georgians did not fulfill their obligations. Georgian ambassadors in Moscow reported that “the road is tight,” “a strong place,” just around the corner, so Kakheti will not send people.
Board of Boris Godunov. Karaman battle 1605 of the yearBoris Godunov continued the policy of gradually strengthening Russian positions in the Caucasus. Russian successfully fought on Sulak and Terek. However, a new large-scale expedition against Shamkhalism ended with a heavy defeat and the death of thousands of warriors. Kakheti again asked for help from the Russian sovereign: "asking for help from him (Boris Godunov) on Gorki Cherkas that they (Kakhetians) are oppressed with them." Moscow sent the army to Dagestan under the command of the governor Ivan Buturlin and Osip Plescheev. The Kakhetians again promised an auxiliary army.
The beginning of the campaign was successful: 10-th. The Russian army (3 Streltsy Regiment, Terek Cossacks and Nogai) captured Tarki. The battle was fierce, the city streets were littered with enemy bodies. Before the battle, the troops listened to a speech in which they were reminded of the brothers who had fallen here and of Russian blood, who had been crying out for revenge. Shamkhal Surkhay II fled to the Avar Khan. The Russians began to build fortresses in Tarki, on Sulak (Koisu) and Aktash. Separate Russian detachments, without encountering serious resistance, collected food, drove away herds and herds. However, the Russian troops were not ready for a long war in the mountains, the governor could not resolve the issue with the regular supply of the corps. The Kumyks hid all the bread in the hiding places, started a partisan war against the Russians, attacking small detachments sent in search of provisions. Kakhetians again deceived and did not send auxiliary troops.
Then the Russian commanders in the late autumn, unable to feed the whole army, sent about half of the corps - about 5 thousand soldiers, for wintering in Astrakhan. The Russian army on the way to Astrakhan was attacked by large Kumyk forces. However, after a bloody battle, the attackers were defeated and retreated, losing about 3 thousand people.
At this time, the situation finally developed not in favor of the Russian detachment. Shamkhal "having sent to Turs (Turkish) tsar (sultan), asking for help from him; he sent many troops to their aid. ” The younger brother of Shamkhal Surkhai, Soltan-Mut, managed to raise the approach of the Turkish reinforcements, practically, all the Dagestan peoples against the invasion of the “infidels.” In early spring, the Dagestan-Turkish army laid siege to the Russian fortifications on Sulak. The head of a small detachment of voivod V.T. Dolgorukov burned down the fortifications and left for the Terek by sea. The small garrison on Aktash did the same. Buturlin's garrison in Tarki was alone. Soltan-Mut with the Turkish pashi offered to the Russian commanders to capitulate, but they refused. Then the Turks and the Highlanders went to storm. Part of the wall and the tower were blown up, the Russian garrison suffered heavy losses. The Janissaries and Dagestanis attempted to break into the fortress, but during the fierce battle the Russian soldiers repelled all attacks. Both sides suffered heavy losses. However, the situation was critical; there was no opportunity to defend a half-destroyed fortress. The main Turkish Pasha and Shamkhal made a secondary offer to surrender the fortress, guaranteeing Buturlin’s unimpeded access to the Russian possessions. In addition, Shamkhal undertook to provide care for seriously ill and wounded Russians, who had to be left in Tarki. Upon recovery, they were obliged to be released to the Terek.
Karamanskaya battle. A heavily-thinned Russian squad moved toward Sulak. Shamkhal provided the Russians with an amanat hostage, supposedly his son, to provide guarantees. One source reports that he was a condemned to death criminal. Shamkhal also demanded that Buturlin leave his son and the boyar children who distinguished themselves in battle. But the Russian voivode was firm and Shamkhal was forced to give up his claims.
Leaving the sick and wounded in the care of the Shamkhaltsevs, the Russian detachment with songs reached out for Sulak. Dagestanis also had a holiday - the end of fasting in the month of Ramadan (uraza-bayram). On the same day, the wedding of Shamkhal and the daughter of the Avar Khan took place. During the festival, Muslim clerics decided to decorate the day with a good cause for Muslims - the release of Shamkhal and his associates from the oath given to this “infidel”. Muslim warriors, burning with the desire to avenge the death of their comrades, immediately rushed in pursuit.
20-thousand The army broke up into several detachments and overtook the Russians beyond the Ozen swamps at the mouth of the river Shura-ozen. The attack was sudden, the Russian warriors did not manage to organize a fortified camp and meet the enemy with a "fiery battle". A violent hand-to-hand fight began. As a result, the outcome of the battle decided the numerical superiority of the Shamkhal warriors. The Russian detachment was divided into separate groups that fought with the bitterness of the doomed. One of the first, in the eyes of his father - the governor Buturlin, killed his young son Fedor.
The mountaineers, in anticipation of great losses, offered Russian soldiers to quit weapon. “The Russians unanimously doomed themselves to glorious death; fought with the enemy evil and numerous in manuscript, a man with a man, one with three, fearing not death, but captivity ”. The bloody battle lasted for several hours, before almost all Russian soldiers fell killed or seriously wounded. Voivods Ivan Buturlin and his son Fedor, Osip Pleshcheyev and his sons Bogdan and Lev, Ivan Poleva, Ivan Isupov and other commanders were killed in the battle. Most of the seriously wounded, who were captured, killed. Only a few of the wounded were left alive - Prince Vladimir Bakhteyarov, the son of I. Buturlin - Petr, and the archers' heads, Athanasius the Good and the Smirny Mamatov. The sick and wounded Russians, who remained in Tarki, were tortured and "died an agonizing death."
These were the first serious Russian clashes with the peoples of Dagestan and they did not bode well. In addition, the actions of the Russian kingdom in the North Caucasus caused serious irritation to the Persian rulers and the Brilliant Ports. Persia and Turkey did not want to see new opponents in the Caucasus, and also “infidels”. The Ottoman Empire and Persia in this period had too strong positions in the Caucasus for Russia to be able to resist them on an equal footing. The Caucasus was still a distant South for the Russian state, where there was only one serious base for further advancement - Astrakhan. This predetermined the defeat of 1605 of the year. Years of hard work were needed in preparing positions, fortified lines, establishing contacts with local rulers, diplomacy on the principle of "divide and conquer", "carrot and stick". It was necessary to attract large financial and material, human resources in order to pacify this huge land and knock out the Turks and Persians from there. Russia of the end of the 16 of the beginning of the 17 of the centuries simply didn’t have objective opportunities to join a significant part of the Caucasus. They will appear much later, already at the end of 18 and the beginning of 19 centuries.
It is necessary to take into account the factor of the Time of Troubles. Smoot for a long time distracted all the forces of the Russian state to internal problems. And after the Time of Troubles was over, Russia had to solve, first of all, the foreign policy problems associated with the Western Russian lands and the Commonwealth. Therefore, Russia for many decades stopped significant military activities in the Caucasus. But at the same time, the Russian kingdom did not interrupt its cultural contacts with co-religionists, primarily with Christian Georgia. Although active assistance, for the reasons stated could not. The development of mutually beneficial economic ties with the region continued.
Expansion of Turkey and Persia
At this time, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate greatly strengthened their expansion in the Caucasus. Turks and Crimean Tatars tried to subjugate the Adighes and Kabardians, to plant Islam among them. However, the Turks did not achieve much success in this matter. Islam was adopted only by the feudal elite of the Adyghes, who were inclined towards this religion during the time of the Golden Horde. The bulk of the Circassians continued to adhere to semi-Christian, semi-pagan beliefs. Bakhchisarai and Istanbul did not succeed in reaching the complete submission of the Adyg tribes, part of the princes cooperated with the Turks and Tatars, but only in their own interests, in order to use them in the struggle with their neighbors.
As noted above, the Turks under Sultan Murad III achieved great success, by 1590 putting control of a large part of the South Caucasus. But soon the Persians will take revenge. The Persian Shah Abbas I (rules in 1587 - 1629 years) will streamline the financial system, remove the Kyzylbashs (Turks) from ruling the country, forming their personal protection solely from the ghouls (brought up in the Islamic traditions of captured boys from among Armenians, Georgians or Circassians). Abbas, with the help of British instructors, will create a regular army, mostly armed with firearms and even equipped with artillery. This will allow him to win a number of victories over the nomadic Uzbeks, driving them out of northeastern Iran and the Afghan tribes. He would subjugate Khorasan, Herat, Gilan, Mazanderan, Lurestan and Kandahar, extending his dominion over much of Afghanistan. After this, Abbas the Great will turn the army against Turkey.
In the Iranian-Turkish war 1603 — 1612. the Persians are already up. The situation for the war was favorable: the rear was cleaned, and the Turks were connected with the war with Austria. The Persians will destroy the Turkish garrisons in Azerbaijan, conquer Eastern Armenia. Luristan, Eastern Georgia and South Kurdistan were also captured. It is clear that the local Caucasian population will again suffer greatly, being between the hammer and the anvil. Thus, the Persians from Armenia will relocate more than 300 thousand people to the depths of Iran. Abbas showed incredible cruelty to the local population, surprising even in those times far from humanity. The Turkish army will make several incursions into Azerbaijan, but will fail. The Istanbul Peace Treaty of November 20 1612 of the year approved the conquest of Persia. Turkey will have to admit defeat, but only for a while, soon the struggle will continue.
The rule of the Turks in the Transcaucasus was replaced by the no less cruel yoke of the Persians. Zulfigar-Shah Karamanly was appointed the ruler of Shemakhi. By the will of the Shah, Derbent Viceroy was formed, which became a springboard for penetration into Dagestan. From Derbent, Persian troops began to raid Dagestan villages. Tsar of Kakheti Alexander sent a letter to the Russian commanders in Terki, where he said that Lezgin and Shevkale people beat their heads and "want to be in the age-old serfs under his royal hand."
To be continued ...
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