Bestiaries of the Middle Ages
Image of a tiger (tigress) on a miniature in the Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century. British Library, London
From the mound
The lion prostrated
Up to half, paws scraping,
He torso rest
Freed with claws
And, escaping, as if from shackles,
Shaggy, red mane began to shake.
Like moles, snow leopard, leopard
And the tiger, scattering the soil with mounds,
Climbing from deep holes;
Branching horns from underground
The deer is agile. Hippopotamus,
The largest of earthly creatures,
From a viscous clay form with difficulty
Unburdens an unreasonable load
Their bodies are huge. Like sprouts
Sheep bleating up above the soil
Curly runes. Hippopotamus
And the scaly crocodile arose,
Fluctuating between land and water.
J. Milton. Paradise Lost, book. VII (translated by M. Lozinsky)
The lion prostrated
Up to half, paws scraping,
He torso rest
Freed with claws
And, escaping, as if from shackles,
Shaggy, red mane began to shake.
Like moles, snow leopard, leopard
And the tiger, scattering the soil with mounds,
Climbing from deep holes;
Branching horns from underground
The deer is agile. Hippopotamus,
The largest of earthly creatures,
From a viscous clay form with difficulty
Unburdens an unreasonable load
Their bodies are huge. Like sprouts
Sheep bleating up above the soil
Curly runes. Hippopotamus
And the scaly crocodile arose,
Fluctuating between land and water.
J. Milton. Paradise Lost, book. VII (translated by M. Lozinsky)
History and culture of the Middle Ages. The main source of knowledge of 80% of our citizens about the Middle Ages is a textbook on the history of the Middle Ages for the 6th grade. And then - someone read something. This, of course, is not about specialists - professional historians, but about all those who are interested in medieval history or have simply heard about it. Moreover, some are interested in it from a very, so to speak, strange direction: they cannot understand why our distant ancestors did this or that. And since the “official history” does not explain this to them, then there is only one conclusion - it is not true.
Meanwhile, life has changed so much that it is so difficult to penetrate into the nature of thinking of a person of centuries ago that ... it is often simply impossible. Even with written sources at hand, we often simply cannot explain their content, although it is ... completely obvious. And, perhaps, the best example of the difference between the spiritual world of a person of the Middle Ages and modern times are ... bestiaries - "stories" of medieval authors about the living nature that surrounds them.
"Creation". Page in the Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century. British Library, London
I have long wanted to write about them, since the source is infinitely interesting, but in the process of working on the topic, it turned out that this was almost impossible. The fact is that if we turn to the list of bestiaries of that era that have come down to us, stored in museums and libraries, including university libraries, it turns out that there are 168 of them (well, maybe I just missed a couple more).
Just imagine: 168 volumes of hand-written thick books on parchment with a mass of color miniatures. It’s physically hard for me to view at least a part, and it’s simply impossible to read. I had to act by the "poke method" - which bestiaries will be the most accessible here and now, and work with those, well, plus the relevant studies of foreign authors made earlier. By the way, there are also a lot of them, and in general this topic is worthy not only of a candidate's, but also of a doctoral dissertation.
"Adam and Eve". Miniature in the Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century. British Library, London
Nevertheless, the illustrative material of even one bestiary turned out to be quite enough to show how the miniaturists saw animals known to them (and unknown ones). Well, the content was collected bit by bit from a variety of sources.
"Adam gives names to animals." Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
So, let's get acquainted with medieval bestiaries (from Latin bestia "beast") - that is, medieval collections of articles on zoology with illustrations.
The earliest bestiaries in Europe have been known since the XNUMXth century. In particular, this is the so-called "Aberdeen Bestiary", the miniatures of which we will use. In fact, this is a real encyclopedia of knowledge about nature.
Well, for the first time it was mentioned back in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library of the Palace of Westminster. It has a total of 100 pages or spreads divided into the following chapters or sections:
1. Creation.
2. Animals.
3. Livestock.
4. Small animals.
5. Birds.
6. Snakes and reptiles.
7. Worms.
8. Fish.
9. Trees.
10. Human nature.
11. The stones.
"Elephant and Dragon". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
As for the content, then ... you can get an impression about it from the very first illustration of this article, because it is completely incomprehensible who is depicted there and what the beast and knight are doing on it. So, it turns out that it depicts a scene ... the abduction of a tiger cub from a tigress.
“If a tigress discovers an empty lair because one of her cubs has been stolen, she immediately sets off in the footsteps of the thief. The kidnapper, even if he mounted a swift horse, will not be able to go far, because he is inferior in speed to the tigress, and will be caught. Therefore, in order to get a tiger cub, the hunter embarks on the following trick: when he sees the approaching tigress, he throws a glass ball, and she grabs it, seeing her reduced reflection in it, which she takes for her own baby.
"Owl". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
And here again, the question without an answer is exactly the same as that of our reader: “Why did the author of this bestiary write this?” Well, the question is already a specialist: what sources did he use? But in both cases, we have no answer. And there is a bestiary and illustrations in it!
"Basilisk and Weasel" "Aberdeen Bestiary", XII century. British Library, London.
Another ancient writer Gaius Julius Solin in his book "Collection of Memorable Information" reported the following entertaining information about him:
“He brings with him death not only to man and other animals, but also to the earth itself, which this monster poisons and burns wherever it lives. Thus the basilisk destroys the grass, destroys the trees, spoils even the air itself, so that not a single bird can fly through the air poisoned by destructive breath.
The natural enemy of the basilisk was ... weasel (the miniature just shows how she bites him). And he was also afraid of the cry of a rooster and a mirror, looking into which he was dying of a broken heart.
"Ram". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
However, there are so many interesting things in the descriptions of the animal world of the Middle Ages that you don’t even know what to choose. Well, here's how you, let's say, this: William d'Ecublein, Bishop of Lausanne, in 1225 ordered the eels that flooded Lake Leman to be placed in a place specially fenced for them and sentenced them to stay there forever.
"Leopard". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
In Kure, the judges of the provincial tribunal carried out a real trial on the larvae of the cockchafer for attacking the roots of plants. Considering them as God's creatures, the judges sentenced them to be deported to a wild place covered with forests, ordering them never to leave these places again and to stop their destructive activities in relation to the crops.
These two court verdicts were rendered in accordance with the text of the law, which states:
"All creatures are subject to God, the creator of canon law." Animals are also subject to this right. Everything that exists was created for man, therefore, to tolerate animals that want to harm him means to misunderstand the Intention of the Creator. That is why religion permits to set traps for birds and beasts that destroy the fruits of the earth; for, as the evangelist St. Mark said: "Let the tree that does not bear fruit be cut down and thrown into the fire."
"Beaver". The text about the beaver said that the testicles of the beaver are of great medical value, which is why, they say, they hunt it. But... knowing this, the beaver bites off his own testicles and, when pursuers catch up with him, demonstrating to them in such a way that he is no longer of value to them. Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
The beaver, which was called "bièvre", inhabited almost all rivers from Kyiv to Andalusia in the Middle Ages. It was hunted for its warm fur and musky glands, which produced raw materials used in the manufacture of medicinal ointments. Beaver fat was also highly valued.
A very interesting message from 1251, that King Henry III of England received a polar bear as a gift. He ordered that the whole city pay four pence a day for his food.
“It was possible to observe how this quite civilized beast, together with the owner, goes to the Thames to fish. He seems to prefer fish to the meager diet given to him by the townsfolk."
In 1294, King Denish of Portugal (whom his subjects called Generous) once hunted in the mountains near Beja. And suddenly he found himself in front of a bear, which jumped on him and knocked him to the ground. The noble warrior entered into a fight with the beast and pierced it through with his dagger, hitting the heart and insides of the bear.
In memory of that hunt, the king ordered his people to catch a live bear and transport it to the Fuellas estate so that it would serve as entertainment for court ladies and gentlemen.
"Satyr". That's just a satire and that's it! Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
It is known that in 1300 an Irish sailor named Patrick Walton, the only survivor of a terrible hurricane that threw his boat onto the deserted shore of the Gulf of Eguilloia, discovered how to breed edible shells, the so-called mussels that live in sea waters.
In order not to die of hunger, he adapted to catch the birds that inhabit the shore in many places, with the help of a net stretched on pegs stuck in the water. He noticed that the pegs are covered with mussels that breed right on them. Today, this man of remarkable intelligence has built hundreds of piles, which give him a bountiful harvest.
In 1330, the monks of the Abbey of St. Bernard received several animals from India, which were called buffaloes and buffaloes. Their milk can compete with cow's, and the meat is not inferior to beef in taste and worthy of decorating the best tables.
"Boars". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
In 1305, the British villains managed to circumvent a royal edict forbidding them to use dogs to hunt deer and wild boars. Lumberjacks in the New Forest county were able to train pigs so that they drove game out of the forest on them. No one has ever been able to find out what diabolical tricks they used to achieve their impure goals.
"Domestic cats". Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
1333: The city chronicle of Saint-Denis tells how one day the townspeople heard plaintive cries for help coming from a cat covered with earth. Breaking the hole, they found a box with a cat and food inside it. The judge found the perpetrators of this witchcraft rite: they turned out to be the abbot of Sito and several of his monks. Under interrogation, the demon-possessed revealed that they called on Satan to help them in order to conduct a successful trade. Two churchmen were sentenced to exile, and two others to be burned at the stake.
"Two storks". Interestingly, one of them eats a frog! Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
In 1328, King Louis IV of Bavaria ordered that all bells ring in his honor when he entered the city, despite the fact that he was excommunicated. One monk did not want to indulge this criminal whim, and then, by order of the sovereign, he was tied to the end of a falling beam, which was lowered into the lions' den. There, the ill-fated churchman was eaten by the lions of the Capitol.
"Hyena" "Aberdeen Bestiary", XII century. British Library, London
King John II the Good issued an ordinance in 1350 which stated:
“Let no one dare to have, feed and keep a single pig inside the walls of Paris in public places, and whoever is seen otherwise will pay a fine of ten coins. And the pigs will be slaughtered by the guards, or by anyone who finds them in the named city, and after slaughtering, he will take his head, and the body will be given to the Central Hospital.
The terrible disease, to which the Italians gave the name "tarantula dance" (or the dance of St. Vitus) and which every year with the advent of summer makes those affected by it jump and jump like rabid animals, was defeated by a pious lord who stopped in the city of Metz in Lorraine. .
One day, in his room, he indulged in reflections on how to heal the poor, tormented by illness people. At this time, jumping out of the chimney, a black cat reared up in front of him and stared at him intently. The cavalier made the sign of the cross, and the cat flew away at the same moment, spitting vile blasphemy. Glory to the Almighty God! The inhabitants of Metz were soon freed from the disease that made them dance.
To prevent cats from ever infecting the townspeople with the dance of St. Vitus, it was decided to burn thirteen cats at the stake every year on June 23, thereby honoring the memory of the miracle, to thank the Lord and receive his blessing to prolong the miraculous healing. Before lighting the fire, echevens and warriors armed with halberds make three circles around the fire, after which the mayor and the commandant of the city, taking torches in their hands, light the fire.
War horses fought alongside men... The Rochester Bestiary, 1230-1240. British Library, London
"Destrier" or the knight's war horse, owes its name to the fact that the page always leads him, holding the "dextroy", that is, the right hand, with his right hand. The "Palefroy" or parade horse is a more graceful animal, having a better gait (and more agile), which is mounted to keep up with the hunt and chase a boar, wolf, bear or deer.
The pacer is often white. He got his name because he walks with an amble; it is more suitable for noble ladies for a walk. The "Russin" or warhorse is used for traveling because it is capable of carrying a large load. The sommier or packhorse is an animal for the Villans. It is used to pull a plow or to drag wood and stones.
Elephants fighting ... "Rochester Bestiary" 1230-1240. British Library, London
And elephants in nature ... Ibid
Here we should interrupt our narrative a little, based on the reports of medieval authors, and remind the reader of VO that the wild fauna of Europe in the Middle Ages was not much different from the modern one. Except one - the abundance of animals. The forests literally teemed with deer, roe deer and wild boar, which caused significant damage to crops, despite hunting and many large predators.
Of the latter, the ubiquitous wolf took first place, followed by the lynx by a small margin. Wolves fearlessly penetrated cities and villages, attacked cattle, dogs, birds, and even people who were forced to lock themselves in their homes at night to protect themselves from their bloody raids.
Just a wolf. Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
In those days, the wolf, as Gaston Phoebus (1331–1395) wrote about it, “is a fairly common animal, it makes no sense to describe it, since there were few people who would not have encountered it.”
Among the animals that have become rare today, it is necessary to name the genet, which was kept in castles as a pet. The stone marten also became a rarity. But the cats brought by the crusaders from Egypt filled everything around.
But this is a rabbit ... "De Lisle Psalter", England, ca. 1310 British Library
Cage-raised rabbits arrived in Europe at the end of the Roman era. They were kept in cages or spacious pens, which were essentially pastures for game. At the same time, the expansion or construction of new cages was regulated by a royal ordinance. But this is, so to speak, "general knowledge" about the rabbit of the Middle Ages.
Private, specific knowledge about him at that time was as follows - the rabbit, like the hare (apparently because of its fertility), was a symbol of voluptuousness. That is, they were a symbol of sin! That is why in medieval manuscripts there are so many images of hares with swords, spears, attacking people and beating them. In fact, this is not at all a satire, as many people think, but an edifying image of sin triumphing over a person!
The male spits sperm into the female's mouth, and their offspring are born, gnawing through the mother's body. Aberdeen Bestiary, XNUMXth century British Library, London
Such was the knowledge of the people of the Middle Ages about the world of animals around them. They believed in something, perhaps they didn’t believe in something, but ... they lived in this informational world.
PS
In the description of medieval animals, materials by Paul-Henri Plantin "Animal World in the Time of the Knights" (Hachette, Paris, 1976. Edition in Russia "Olma-Press", 1998, translated from French by A. Rochko) were used.
Information