Caesar vs. Pompey and the Battle of Pharsalus
Around 60 BC e. for a short time in Rome, the interests of three very different people united. The first was Caesar, who returned from "Further Spain", who, wanting to become consul, was forced to give up his triumph.
Tusculan portrait of Caesar, Museum of Antiquities, Turin
The second is Pompey, who, having returned in 62 BC. e. after the victory in the Third Mithridatic War, he could not get the Senate to ratify his decrees in the East and provide land allotments to veterans of his army.
Bust of Pompey, XNUMXst c. BC e.
The third, Mark Crassus, represented the interests of the publicans. Those, realizing that the province of Asia was devastated during the war, wanted to reduce taxes there (which they collected).
Bust of Crassus. Copenhagen Glyptothek
Later they were called the first triumvirs, although the word "triumvirate" (from the Latin tres viri - "three people") appeared later and referred to the union of Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. It was their union that was the first Triumvirate, but eventually received the name of the second. And the temporary association of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus in Rome was then called societas (“partnership”) or even conspiratio (“secret agreement”, “conspiracy”).
Breakup of the First Triumvirate
The first triumvirs achieved all their goals, but soon their paths diverged. Caesar, with the rank of proconsul, became governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonne Gaul and Illyricum and remained there for 10 years. It is to this period that his famous wars with the Gauls belong.
Crassus was the richest man in Rome and saved Rome from the nightmare of Spartacus' rebellion. But he envied the glory of Caesar and Pompey, realizing that in the eyes of the Romans, his victory over the slaves does not look quite complete compared to the successes of his allies and rivals in wars with an external enemy. And therefore, Crassus decided to stand on a par with the recognized generals of his time, having won Parthia for Rome. This territory was once part of the Seleucid state (descendants of one of the Diadochi who divided the empire of Alexander the Great). It was conquered by nomads - parns, whose leaders became the kings of the Arshakids dynasty. The basis of the army of this new state was the cavalry - horse archers and heavy cataphract riders. The campaign of Crassus ended in a terrible defeat, this was described in the article Parthian disaster Mark Licinius Crass.
Married to Caesar's daughter Julia, Pompey, called the Great during his lifetime, remained in Rome, where he enjoyed the highest authority. A year before the death of Crassus, his wife Julia, daughter of Caesar, died, and the daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metella Pius Scipio, who was an enemy of Pompey's former ally, became his new wife.
Caesar Crossing the Rubicon
Meanwhile, Caesar's powers in Gaul expired, and the senate demanded his return to Rome. However, Caesar, on the one hand, was afraid of legal persecution, which numerous enemies were ready to launch against him. On the other hand, he did not want to lose income from the Gallic lands. And he was interested in money primarily as an instrument of influence in Rome. Caesar tried to negotiate, offered various compromise agreements, but they were all rejected by his ill-wishers, to whom Pompey now joined.
In the winter of 50-49 BC. e. Caesar with the XIII legion was located in Cisalpine Gaul near Ravenna. Another 4 legions subordinate to him were in Belgica and 4 in the lands of the Aedui. Caesar hesitated for a long time, but nevertheless decided on an open confrontation with the Senate and Rome. Calling on the help of the VIII and XII legions, on January 11, 49 BC. e. he crossed the Rubicon River, which served as the border of Italy. He is said to have said to his friends at the time:
When the news of Caesar's movement reached Rome, the senate outlawed him, and Pompey was appointed commander-in-chief of all the forces of the republic.
Before the showdown
On January 17, Pompey invited the Senate and his supporters to go with him to Campania, where there were 5 legions. Those who refused to leave Rome he declared enemies. Caesar acted smarter, declaring that he would consider his friends both his supporters and those who remained neutral. The gates before him were opened by Arretius, Iguvius, Ancona and some other cities. Corfinium, in which Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus closed with 30 cohorts, surrendered a week later. The troops in it went over to the side of Caesar. Republican commanders were released on parole not to fight against Caesar (which many of them immediately violated).
Pompey at that time was already at Brundisium, from where he sent his army to Greece in March of the following year, where he began to recruit additional troops.
The situation was as follows: Caesar controlled Rome and Italy, however, parts loyal to Pompey were located in Spain, Greece, Illyria, Africa, as well as on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The initiative was on the side of Caesar, who decided first to defeat Pompey's allies. He himself went to Spain, saying:
To organize overseas expeditions, he ordered to break open the doors of the state treasury. He left as his governors in Rome Mark Antony and Mark Aemilius Lepidus.
The Gallic legions of Fabius (VII, IX and XI) and Trebonius (VI, X and XIV) moved to Spain through the Pyrenees. With them were up to 5 thousand soldiers of the Gallic and Aquitanian infantry and up to 6 thousand horsemen. Caesar led the VIII, XII and XIII legions into Spain. On April 19, he approached Massalia (now this city is called Marseilles), the defense of which was led by the familiar Domitius Ahenobarbus, who fled from Corfinium. Leaving here the three legions of Trebonius, Caesar moved to Spain, where he was opposed by seven legions and about five thousand horsemen. Five legions led by Lucius Aphranius and Mark Petreus occupied a position near the Sikoris River (now Segre) near Ilerda (Lerida). The other two legions commanded by Mark Terentius Varro were in "Further Spain". After a series of positional battles, the legions of Aphranius and Petraea were surrounded while trying to retreat and, without entering into a general battle, surrendered. Upon learning of this, Varro also gave up resistance. Caesar returned to Massalia, which capitulated after a 7-month siege - December 13, 49 BC. e. By order of Caesar, the authorities of the city and its inhabitants handed over everything available weapon, cash, and supplies.
Meanwhile, in the absence of Caesar, his commanders captured Sicily and Sardinia, but were defeated in Illyria and Africa.
In Africa, the resistance was led by Publius Attius Varus, who made an alliance with the Numidian king Yuba. On Caesar's side he was opposed by Curio, who arrived on August 11 at the head of two legions and 500 cavalry. Having won a field battle, he laid siege to Utica. At this moment, the advanced units of Yuba approached. Having overturned them, Curio decided to pursue the enemy and led his troops to the main forces of the Numidians. At the Bagrad River, the Romans were defeated, Curio died in battle.
Guy Anthony (younger brother of Mark, the future triumvir and Cleopatra's lover), who was located on the island of Kurikta (Krk), was sent to Illyria with two legions. Here, his troops were blocked after the Pompeians Mark Octavius and Lucius Scribonius Libo sank or burned almost all of his ships. Experiencing difficulties with food, the army of Guy Anthony and he himself surrendered.
Pompey and Caesar: face to face
Pompey and Caesar were by far the best generals of Rome at that time. Now they had to wage war, and they were almost on an equal footing in all respects. Approximately equal was the number of troops that were equally armed and acted according to the same charter. On both sides, in addition to the commanders, there were very talented commanders. For example, the same Mark Antony in the army of Caesar and Titus Labien in the army of the Pompeians. Labienus is not as famous as Mark Antony, but this commander was highly appreciated by Julius Caesar himself, who, leaving, left him to command troops in Gaul and Britain. And in 51 BC. e. he appointed Labienus governor of Cisalpine Gaul.
Among the Pompeians was also a very experienced military leader Gaius Cassius Longinus, who during the unfortunate campaign of Crassus against the Parthians was a quaestor and managed to bring 500 horsemen to Syria. And then he also defeated the Parthians in the battle of Antigony.
In general, in an equal battle, Pompey and Caesar now had to find out which of them is a truly great commander.
As we remember, Caesar hoped "oppose a warlord left without an army". However, while he fought in Spain, and his legates in Africa, Illyria, Sicily and Sardinia, Pompey, located in the Macedonian Beroia (Veria), prepared for war with him for a year. The basis and core of his army were five Italian legions, and two of them (I and III) had previously fought under the command of Caesar in Gaul. The other three were recruits. These troops were joined by legions in which veterans of the army of Pompey himself served: one was here, in Macedonia, the other came from Cilicia. Consul Lucius Cornelius Lentulus recruited two legions in Asia. The army of Pompey also included soldiers of the army of Gaius Anthony who surrendered on the island of Krk. Two more legions were to be brought from Syria by Pompey's father-in-law, Metellus Scipio. The number of horsemen reached 7 thousand. In addition, Pompey's army had about 8 foot soldiers from the Eastern Allies. Thus, the size of his army was about 50 people. December 000 B.C. e. he moved it to the west and settled in Illyria near Dyrrachium.
By the end of December of the same year, Caesar managed to collect ten legions and 10 thousand horsemen from Brundisius. At sea, the Pompeians had the advantage, but their commander fleet Mark Calpurnius Bibulus did not notice the crossing of part of Caesar's army (5 legions and 600 horsemen), which took place on January 4, 48 BC. e. These troops, led by Caesar, landed on the coast of Epirus. On the way back, Caesar's fleet was nevertheless attacked and lost some of the ships. Bibulus also tried to attack Brundisius, but this attack was repelled by Mark Antony.
By the way, the fleet of Bibulus included a squadron of ships that the eldest son of Pompey, the full namesake of this commander, brought from Alexandria. Gnaeus Pompey the Younger was credited with a love affair with Cleopatra, thanks to which he allegedly managed to get these ships. However, Caesar soon found this 18-year-old queen, the wife of his 13-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII, in the most desperate situation. It is difficult to say whether it was she who then contributed to the allocation of 50 or 60 ships to the son of Pompey.
In April 48 BC. e. Mark Antony led the crossing of the remaining troops to Epirus, but they managed to land well north of the positions of both armies. Pompey tried to cut off these parts from Caesar's army, but he was ahead of him.
Not daring to engage in open battle with Pompey, Caesar surrounded his army with a 24-kilometer fortified line. Pompey, in turn, ordered to build his own line, reaching a length of 13 km.
Pompey's army had sufficient food, but few sources of water and fodder for horses. Caesar's troops had the opposite situation. Constant skirmishes did not bring success to either side, until Pompey landed troops on July 10, organizing a serious attack on Caesar's camp from the south. Three legions, which Caesar himself brought to the rescue, found themselves on a narrow strip between their camp, which had already been captured by the Pompeians, and the seashore. There was a panic, and Caesar himself, trying to stop the fleeing soldiers, was almost killed by one of them. If Pompey had ordered the pursuit to continue, this battle could have been decisive in that war. But, as Caesar himself said,
However, the position of the Caesarians was difficult. Having lost their camp, they began to retreat to the southeast - to Thessaly. Pompey's troops followed them. On the way, both armies received reinforcements: two Greek legions of Gnaeus Domitius Calvin joined Caesar, and two Syrian legions of Metellus Scipio joined Pompey.
Battle of Pharsalus
In August, the armies of Caesar and Pompey stopped on the banks of the Enipeus near Pharsalus, where they set up their camps. Here was a wide valley, on which Caesar lined up his troops for several days, inviting Pompey to join the battle. But this experienced commander did not accept the challenge, as he reasonably believed that time was working against his rival, whose army was experiencing supply difficulties. However, his legates, inspired by the success of Dyrrachius, insisted on a battle, and Pompey allowed himself to be persuaded by them. Seeing his preparations, the overjoyed Caesar said that, finally, they
Caesar claimed that the numerical superiority was on the side of Pompey, but modern researchers believe that the forces of the parties were approximately equal. For example, the German military historian Hans Delbrück believed that there were approximately 30 infantrymen on both sides. He determines the number of horsemen at three thousand for Pompey and two for Caesar.
The battle at Pharsalus began on the morning of August 9, 48 BC. e. Pompey traditionally led the right flank of his troops, which is considered the main one, Metellus Scipio stood in the center, Domitius Ahenobarbus took command of the left flank. Pompey's cavalry was led by Titus Labienus.
In the enemy army, Caesar also took command of his right flank. He entrusted the command of the center to Domitius Calvin, the left flank to Mark Antony. At the same time, the right wing of Pompey's troops and, accordingly, the left wing of Caesar rested on the swampy bank of the Enipeus River. And therefore, the entire cavalry of the opposing armies acted on the opposite flank. It was here that the fate of both the battle and the entire war was decided. And Pompey, unlike Caesar, was far from this place.
Having an advantage in cavalry, Pompey decided to break the enemy cavalry and go to the rear of the foot soldiers. But Caesar figured out this plan and placed behind his battle line six reserve cohorts (about three thousand people), and put them at an angle of 90 degrees - so that they were face to face with the enemy horsemen deployed to strike on the flank.
Pompey's cavalry did indeed overturn Caesar's cavalry, but ran into reserve cohorts. Caesar ordered these soldiers not to throw, as usual, their pila, but to use them, but as spears, and aim at the faces of Pompey's horsemen. And these were young representatives of the "best families" of Rome and the eastern provinces. They were ready to risk their lives, but not the beauty of their faces. The horsemen of the Pompeians were confused, and at that time the German-Gallic cavalry of Caesar, who had retreated, returned. Having defeated the enemy cavalry, which was surrounded, the Germans and Gauls attacked Pompey's army from the rear, and Caesar's right flank hit the left wing of Pompey's army, whose legions were just starting the attack from the front. The Pompeians fled, and Caesar's army broke into their camp.
Scheme of the Battle of Pharsalus
By evening, the bulk of Pompey's army surrendered to the victors. Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus went over to the side of Caesar, who would later take an active part in the assassination of Caesar.
Modern historians believe that the Pompeians lost about 6 thousand people in that battle, the Caesarians - about a thousand. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who commanded the left flank, died in battle. Metellus Scipio, Labienus and Cato went to Africa and fought against Caesar for some time. Labien, for example, died in Spain at the battle of Munda - in 45 BC. e.
Plutarch reports that 5 years later (in 43 BC)
That is, the situation was not so critical, and Pompey could still try to withdraw the remnants of his army. However, this seemingly experienced and seasoned commander, seeing the defeat of his left flank, left the troops and sat in prostration in his camp. The people who were with him hardly persuaded him to run away, and he had to do it in the clothes of a slave. Pompey went to Larissa, and from there to the island of Lesbos, where his family was in the city of Mytilene. On reflection, he decided to go to Egypt. There, at that time, the very young Ptolemy XIII ruled. The father of this king at one time retained power precisely thanks to Pompey, who was sent to help him by the Roman governor in Syria, Aulus Gabinius. And the cavalry in the Roman army was commanded by the young Mark Antony, who at that time first saw the 14-year-old princess Cleopatra.
Ptolemy XII bequeathed his throne to his children - 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 13-year-old brother, who became the husband of his older sister and ascended the throne under the name of Ptolemy XIII.
Sculptural portraits of Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra:
Ptolemy XIII, bust, Altes Museum, Berlin
Sculptural portrait of Cleopatra. Marble. Vatican Museums
And Ptolemy XII appointed Rome as the guarantor of the fulfillment of his will in the person of Pompey the Great. Considering that quite recently the eldest son of Pompey received a whole squadron of ships in Alexandria, this decision seemed quite logical and reasonable. However, the situation has now changed, and the advisers of the young king decided that it was too dangerous for their state to accept the enemy of Caesar. Pompey was killed, his head was presented to Caesar, who appeared in Alexandria in early October. Caesar allegedly wept at the sight of her and ordered a decent burial. Ahead of him was a fateful meeting with Cleopatra, and the will of Ptolemy XII gave him a reason to intervene in Egyptian affairs. But we have already talked about this - in the article The Last of the Ptolemies.
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