Strange dictator António de Salazar
The XNUMXth century also became the century of dictators. Traditional monarchies collapsed one after another. The colonial system crumbled, creating new independent and often artificial states that had never existed before. After the First World War, Europe tried the rule of dictators, after the Second World War, it was the turn of Central and South America and Africa. In Europe, stupid dictators like Hitler, Mussolini, Antonescu and Horthy dragged their countries into a big war - and lost it. Clever dictators Francisco Franco and António Di Salazar saved their countries from participation in the global slaughter and, no matter how you treat them, laid the foundations for the current prosperity of these states.
Franco received a backward agrarian country, half-starved, practically destroyed by the civil war. During the years of his reign, Spain entered the list of developed countries, its own industry was created (in the 1960s, Spain was second only to Japan in terms of economic growth), and a modern industry of mass domestic and international tourism appeared, which brings huge incomes to the country. Contrary to popular belief that democratic reforms in Spain were carried out by King Juan Carlos I, invited by Franco (now he, accused of corruption, fled to Abu Dhabi), this Bourbon got a completely free and democratic country.
Already in 1956-1957, despite the absence of diplomatic relations between Spain and the USSR, more than half of the “children of Russia” evacuated during the civil war returned to their homeland - Niños de la Rusia (in another way they were called Niños de la Guerra - “children of wars"). They received housing subsidies and equal rights. In 1966, censorship was completely abolished in Spain, and the process of releasing political criminals began (the latter were released from prison in 1969). Since 1970, the cost of education in Spain has exceeded the cost of the army.
Recall that Franco died in 1975. But until the 60s. the regime of this dictator was very cruel and therefore, despite all the merits, Franco is not loved in Spain (especially in Catalonia). In September 2018, the parliament voted to reburial the remains of the caudillos, who rested in the memorial complex "Valley of the Fallen" near Madrid, which should serve as a symbol of national reconciliation (here are the bodies of both Francoists and Republicans).
A completely different person turned out to be the Portuguese António de Salazar, a university professor who, only on the second attempt, allowed himself to be persuaded to enter the government. From other dictators who were his contemporaries, he differed even in appearance. Judge for yourself. Here is the Italian Benito Mussolini:
This is the Francisco Franco we talked about:
Miklos Horthy, Hungary:
Chiang Kai-shek, China:
François Duvalier, Haiti ("Papa Doc"):
And finally, António de Salazar:
The death penalty in Portugal was abolished, however, Salazar was at the head of the state longer than all European rulers. This is what will be discussed in today's article.
Economic and political situation in Portugal at the beginning of the XNUMXth century
Like Spain, Portugal was in deep crisis at the time. It was an extremely backward, archaic and poor state that still retained the remnants of the colonial empire - Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau in Africa, Goa, Daman and Diu in India, Macau in China, and some other tiny territories around the world.
Portuguese colonies in Africa
Little Portugal was no longer able to fully develop its colonies, or even effectively exploit them. They only had enough strength to protect them from other European predators and somehow keep them in obedience. Over the centuries of colonial expansion, Portugal simply overstrained itself, losing at first young healthy men who died at sea or settled in new lands, and then entire families of immigrants. 600 thousand people moved to Brazil alone in the 2th century, while only 5 million lived in the metropolis itself at the end of that century. Currently, 2021 million Brazilians, as direct descendants of Portuguese immigrants, are eligible for citizenship in this country. And the population of Portugal itself, according to 10 data, is 347 people.
About a million Portuguese lived in Angola and Mozambique at the time of their independence. 800 thousand of them moved to Portugal in 1975, many moved to South Africa. However, at the time described, there was not even a question of abandoning the unprofitable legacy of the great colonial era. Meanwhile, in 1900, the population of Portugal was only 5, and even the major cities were loosely connected.
Historian José Hermanu Saraiva claims that in the middle of the 60th century, when railways were being built throughout Europe, in Portugal the idea of building such a line between Lisbon and Porto was rejected due to the fact that there was simply no one to travel along it and there was nothing to carry. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, XNUMX% of the population was employed in agriculture, but the development of latifundia led to the ruin of many peasants. They could not get a job in urban factories, as in other countries, due to the lack of a sufficient number of industrial enterprises. As a result, many of them were forced to emigrate from the country, mainly to Brazil, a former Portuguese colony.
At the beginning of the 1902th century, the Portuguese had to spend their already meager resources to suppress the uprising in Angola. In 1904, the government of Portugal declared bankrupt. But around this time - in 1906-XNUMX. the first football clubs appeared here, including such well-known ones as Benfica, Sporting and Porto.
The King of Portugal was then Carlos I. He was shot dead by terrorists in Lisbon on February 1, 1908. His eldest son also died with him. The youngest, who was 18 years old, ascended the throne. He became the last king of Portugal - Manuel II. The monarchy fell a year and a half later - in October 1910, when the army and navy rebelled. Two cruisers even entered the mouth of the Tagus River and bombarded the royal palace. Manuel II fled to England, Portugal became a republic.
In 1916, the new rulers dragged the country into the First World War on the side of the Entente, which further devastated the treasury and increased tension in society. In this war, Portugal lost 6 young men, which was quite a lot for a small country. As compensation, Portugal was allocated 0,75% of the reparations that Germany had to pay. Quite large amounts of these funds did not even reach Lisbon, settling in the personal accounts of top management.
The early years of António de Salazar's life
Salazar was born on April 28, 1889 in the village of Vimieiro, located in northern Portugal. He was the fifth child in the family and the first boy, the age of his parents at that time was approaching 50.
The house where Salazar was born
The family owned a small plot of land, but the father of our hero became the manager of the estate of a local landowner. It was this aristocrat who sponsored the training of the future ruler of the country. It was said that later Salazar had an affair with the master's daughter, to whom he came as a tutor. Noticing the development of these relations, the girl's parents refused the young man from the house. Some believe that this is why he did not marry, deciding to devote himself to science.
Salazar's parents, being zealous Catholics, dreamed that their son would become a priest. Therefore, he was sent to study at the seminary, where he spent 8 years - from 1900 to 1908. In the year Salazar graduated, as we remember, the king and heir to the throne were killed. Salazar at that time was 19 years old, and it was only possible to become a priest at the age of 24. And so he decided to continue his studies at the Faculty of Law of the University of Coimbra - the only one in the country (where he also studied economics). Since then, Salazar did not think about a spiritual career, but remained a staunch Catholic and served as secretary of the Academic Center for Christian Democracy.
In the wild student life of his classmates, he did not participate in any way, and eschewed participation in political events. And the time in Portugal was fun: after the victory of the revolution in 1910, it was considered quite normal to “shoot” portraits of Portuguese kings, but there was a special chic in breaking some monument or statue. Vandals are everywhere and always the same - both in Portugal at the beginning of the XNUMXth century and in modern Ukraine.
In 1914, Salazar graduated from the university, having received 19 points out of 20 possible at the final exams. In this educational institution, he got a job, receiving the position of a teacher of political economy. Five years later he was already a professor and head of
Department of Economic Sciences. He received his doctorate in 1918 at the age of 29.
António de Salazar in his youth
In the same 1918, Salazar became a member of parliament from the Catholic Party, but after the first meeting, making sure that the assembled deputies were professional idlers and irresponsible populists, he surrendered his mandate.
Towards power
Meanwhile, Portugal entered a long period of political instability. It is estimated that from 1910 to 1926 this state had 9 presidents, 44 prime ministers and 3 dictators. Everyone was dissatisfied with the situation in the country - both the extreme left groups and the monarchists nostalgic for the old order. In 1921, by the way, the Communist Party of Portugal appeared. Finally, in 1926, the military seized power in the country, the new government was headed by General Gomes da Costa.
He had no coherent economic program, as you understand. In search of a competent person, he turned his attention to a modest professor at the University of Coimbra, who was only 39 years old, he was not interested in politics and was not involved in any scandals. Salazar was offered the post of Minister of Finance, but he went to Lisbon very reluctantly. Here, to everyone's surprise, Salazar demanded for himself special powers to control and regulate all public spending. Having received a refusal, Salazar inquired about the schedule of trains going to Coimbra, and after 2 hours he was already sitting in the car.
After 2 years, da Costa himself was overthrown by another general, Oshkar Carmona, who during the World War became famous for being appointed commander of the Portuguese expeditionary force in Belgium, leading it from Lisbon. The economic situation in the country during this time only worsened, and in 1928 Carmona also turned to Salazar, this time agreeing to all his conditions. However, Salazar gave an answer only a day later. Later, he admitted that he did not want to leave his job at the university, moreover, he was terribly afraid of embarrassing himself in front of his students in case of failure. Salazar prayed all night and nevertheless agreed to enter the new government.
He never quit the university, taking an academic leave, which he then extended at the beginning of each year of his long reign.
Even then, Salazar received almost dictatorial powers: only he personally allocated budget money to all ministries and departments, and no one could make decisions related to state expenditures and revenues without his consent.
Salazar immediately dotted the “and”, stating:
“You can make suggestions to me, object and discuss, but when the time comes to give orders, I will wait for their execution.”
President Carmona and Finance Minister Salazar
Salazar quickly tightened the belts of all ministries, keeping their costs to a minimum. At the same time, he himself lived in a small apartment, and for many years wore the same gray suit brought from Coimbra. He wrote with the cheapest fountain pen, the same one now had to be used by all other ministers. Because of this unpretentiousness, Salazar was later nicknamed the "clerk dictator." Salazar made the only exception for expensive cars.
Severe budgetary discipline and an uncompromising fight against corruption and embezzlement proved to be very effective means of improving the economy.
A year later, Salazar managed to accomplish what everyone seemed impossible - to make the budget of Portugal deficit-free. In 1932, Salazar became prime minister. In this position, he drafted a new constitution, which was adopted by an overwhelming majority in a referendum in 1933. The constitution declared freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, but allowed the government to restrict them for reasons of "the common good."
Estado Novo Corporativo
Portugal is now
"a corporate republic based on the equality of citizens before the law, on the free access of all classes to the benefits of civilization, and on the participation of all the constructive elements of the nation in administrative life and in the development of laws."
Salazar was quite frank, stating:
“Our position is anti-parliamentary, anti-democratic, anti-liberal and on its basis we want to build a corporate state...
We are against all internationalisms, against communism, against trade union free-thinking, against everything that weakens, divides, dissolves the family, against the class struggle, against the rootless and atheists, against force as a source of law.
We are against all internationalisms, against communism, against trade union free-thinking, against everything that weakens, divides, dissolves the family, against the class struggle, against the rootless and atheists, against force as a source of law.
Salazar said:
“Excessive consumption and luxury corrupt people, but poverty is not a virtue either. The truth is in the middle - in the satisfaction of the basic needs of life through hard work.
Entrepreneurs and workers were united in a corporation in Portugal, according to Salazar's plan, they had to jointly resolve all disputes “in a family way”, and the state acted as an arbitrator if the parties could not come to a decision that would suit everyone. Strikes were banned (“due to their uselessness”) and lockouts - stopping production without paying wages.
All parties were dissolved, because, according to Salazar, they only sowed discord in society. There was little sense from them, instead of them, a "nationwide association National Union" was created, which was headed by Salazar's university classmate Mario de Figueiredo. Only representatives of the National Union and sat in Parliament (National Assembly). However, the government of Portugal also had legislative functions, so that the parliament played practically no role in the political life of the country.
The suffrage was given to literate men on the condition that they paid at least one hundred escudos of taxes annually. Women needed a secondary education to vote, and the minimum annual tax for them was determined at two hundred escudos.
By the way, in Bulgaria women received the right to vote in 1937, in Romania - in 1939, in Italy, Yugoslavia, Japan - in 1945, in Belgium - in 1948, in Greece - in 1952, in the Swiss canton of Vaud - in 1959. And in the Swiss In the canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, women's suffrage was recognized at all in 1991 - after the decision of the Federal Supreme Court of this country.
Let's go back to pre-war Portugal, where the secret police PIDE monitored the mood in society. A pro-government paramilitary public organization, the Portuguese Legion, was also created.
An important role in the government of Salazar was played by employees of the University of Coimbra, who sometimes occupied up to half of the ministerial seats. Professor Marcelo Caetano, for example, became the head of Salazar's office (the position was loudly called "Minister President"). He would later be appointed as the successor to the stroke-stricken Salazar.
A graduate of the University of Coimbra, Manuel Serejeira became the Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon and, in fact, the head of the entire Portuguese Church. By the way, it was Serezheyra who began to propagate and promote the "muddy" history the apparition of the Virgin to three girls from the village of Fatima (now they would at best be sent to share their fantasies at an appointment with a school psychologist).
Salazar himself from that time became the de facto dictator of Portugal, leaving the president dotted and only representative and ceremonial functions. Moreover, Salazar himself, unlike other dictators, did not like to make speeches and generally without the need to appear in public. The former general resigned himself to this state of affairs, although he complained to his friends that he felt like he was put in a "golden cage". Carmona faithfully fulfilled the duties of decorative president until his death in 1951. He was replaced by another "pocket president" - Meshkitu Guimarães. The third and last president of the New State was America Tomas, who served from 1958 to 1974.
António de Salazar and President America Tomas
As prime minister, Salazar continued his economic reforms and managed to achieve, in particular, the self-sufficiency of Portugal in wheat. Moreover, grain began to be even exported. However, not everyone liked Salazar's policy, and on July 4, 1937, anarcho-nationalists attempted to assassinate him (the bomb exploded three meters from Salazar, but the prime minister was not injured). In the same year, the Minister of Defense attempted a coup d'état.
The razor's edge
In the Spanish Civil War that began in 1936, Salazar supported the anti-republican forces led by Franco. The Viriatos volunteer legion was sent to the territory of the neighboring country, Portuguese ports were opened for German and Italian ships with military supplies for the rebels. Hitler even gave Portugal some of the latest Junkers. He seriously counted on the participation of Spain and Portugal in the outbreak of World War II. However, both countries refused to declare war on the Soviet Union and its allies. At the same time, Franco nevertheless sent the volunteer "Blue Division" (Divisionón Española de Voluntarios) to the Soviet-German front.
But Salazar this time refused to help even volunteers. Having declared neutrality, Portugal, like Switzerland and Sweden, began to make money on someone else's war. The main and most valuable resource of this country turned out to be deposits of tungsten ores. This metal was necessary for the production of gun steel and tank armor. It was also mined in Sweden, but there its production was only 10% of that of Portugal. Salazar sold tungsten to both parties, and the price of this metal, thanks to competition, increased almost 6 times over the year: if at the beginning of 1941 they paid 1 escudos per ton of tungsten, then at the end - 250 thousand. And then the price reached 6 thousand per ton. At the same time, Salazar refused to accept German marks as payment, demanding gold or, as a last resort, weapon or coal.
Against the backdrop of other European countries, Portugal prospered. Its youth did not die in the trenches, air raid sirens did not sound in the streets, people did not know what ration cards were. Salazar did not prevent the transformation of Portugal into a huge international "black market", where the warring states could buy anything, leaving a considerable percentage of these transactions here. Nor did he object to the fact that the country became an arena for the struggle between the intelligence agencies of the belligerents, especially since their agents were literally overspending. Employees of the Abwehr and the British Secret Intelligence Service clashed here especially. As a result, during the war years, Portugal's gold and foreign exchange reserves increased from $63,3 million in 1938 to $438 million in 1946.
In 1944, after the Allied landings in Normandy, Salazar stopped selling tungsten to Germany, which caused difficulties in the Third Reich in the production of tanks and artillery pieces. In addition, Salazar refused to participate in the evacuation of high-ranking Nazis to South America, on which Spain and the Vatican made good money. Only in 1949 did Portugal, previously neutral, join NATO, having negotiated significant economic preferences.
Postwar years
After the end of the Second World War, the economic situation of Portugal against the background of other European countries was very good, and Salazar then even issued loans to Great Britain. However, by this time a new generation of well-fed young people had appeared in the country, and their parents hardly remembered the poverty of the 1920s. The Portuguese wanted to live even better, and were dissatisfied with the rate of growth of their wealth. In addition, society has accumulated fatigue from the same persons in the country's leadership.
The citizens of Portugal wanted change, but Salazar, who believed in his indispensability, did not want to leave. Political repressions were deployed in the country. Portugal fell into a vicious circle of confrontation between the authorities and citizens: speeches against the government were suppressed, causing only regular rounds of general discontent and more and more retaliatory repressions. The president was now elected by a college of electors controlled by Salazar. Nevertheless, there were no mass arrests, let alone murders, of opponents of the regime in Portugal. Even in the Tarrafal prison, which is always remembered when talking about the reign of Salazar, calling it a “slow death camp”, only 37 prisoners died in 32 years (this prison was located on the island of Santiago in the Cape Verde archipelago - it was in this now independent state that almost went as ambassador N. Poklonskaya).
In 1959, an attempted military coup took place in Portugal. Salazar and his ministers had to take refuge in the barracks of the National Republican Guard. Later it turned out that this unit was also commanded by conspirators who, for some reason, did not dare to arrest the defenseless rulers of the country.
An additional headache was added by unrest in the colonies, which now began to be called "overseas provinces." But at first, even Salazar's opponents did not want to abandon the legacy of the great era. India's annexation of Goa in 1961 ("Operation Vijay") was perceived very painfully.
Portugal could not fight with India, but tried to keep the African colonies. After the Second World War, it turned out that Angola was rich in minerals, and production began to bring more benefits than the diamond trade. They also found oil, which did not please Salazar at all. It is said that when he heard about the discovery of oil fields there, the usually restrained Salazar exclaimed: "Only this was not enough for us"!
He understood that Angola would now attract the attention of the superpowers, and it would no longer be possible to keep it. So it all happened in the end.
The "overseas provinces" tried to hold on not only with a whip, but also with a carrot. A lot of money was invested in Angola - to the detriment of the development of Portugal itself. Highways were laid in the impenetrable jungle, malaria swamps were drained, power plants were built in the jungle. However, the national liberation movement, carefully fed from abroad, only grew stronger. The rebel detachments were divided into allegedly socialist (MPLA party) and openly nationalist, which consisted mainly of representatives of the Bakongo people (UPA party, then UNITA).
In addition to the war against the Portuguese, the Angolan rebels also grappled with each other. The MPLA was assisted by the USSR and Cuba. The UPA parties in the south and southeast of Angola were helped from South Africa. At first, the war for Angola was quite popular in Portugal, and it continued after the death of Salazar. However, spending grew (reaching 40% of the budget), almost a quarter of the adult male population participated in the hostilities.
Portuguese casadores (light infantrymen) in Angola
Fatigue grew in society, and in the end Portugal recognized the independence of Angola. Having got rid of the Portuguese who built roads and power plants, UNITA and the MPLA began (or rather, continued) a bloody civil war in Angola, which lasted from 1975 to 2002. The first found support in China, then in the USA, South Africa and Zaire, the second traditionally supported the USSR and Cuba. The Cubans sent a total of 25 thousand soldiers there. The Soviet Union could afford to fight with geopolitical opponents by proxy in Africa as well.
MPLA soldiers
UNITA soldiers with a white instructor, 1976
Soviet tank T-54A with a Cuban crew
Mozambique was also lost. The last Portuguese colony, Macau, which belonged to this country for 442 years, was transferred to China on the night of December 20, 1999. Now Macau is officially called Macau.
But we've gone too far ahead.
The sad end of the life of António de Salazar
In September 1968, Salazar became disabled after suffering a hemorrhagic stroke. Usually they write that the stroke was caused by a fall either from a chair or from a deck chair. It seems that just the fall itself was caused by this disease. For a whole month, Salazar was still listed as prime minister - until it became clear that he would not return to full-fledged work. Salazar's successor was the former head of his office, and at that time the rector of the University of Lisbon, Professor Marcelo Caetano. Salazar spoke of him:
"I respect him because Cayetano loves power not for personal gain or the support of his family, he is an honest man."
Marcelo Cayetano
Until his death on July 27, 1970, Salazar lived without knowing that he was no longer the head of state: they sent him "memos" and reports, imitated working meetings, brought a newspaper published in a single copy.
By the way, the fate of Salazar shows what Stalin could have expected if he had survived a stroke in March 1953.
No mausoleum or pompous memorial was built for Salazar: he was buried at home - in the village cemetery in Vimieira next to his parents.
Salazar's successor, Marcelo Caetano, ruled for 4 years and was removed as a result of the military coup of the "Movement of Captains", which was successful on the second attempt. The signal for the performance was the broadcast of the song "Grandula, Vila Morena" on Lisbon radio. In the capital, the troops were greeted with carnations and the famous Chilean song "El pueblo unido jamás será vencido".
Then the general secretary of the Communist Party Kunyal entered the Provisional Government, however, as a minister without a portfolio.
Alvaro Cunhal, 1980
Diplomatic relations were established with the USSR. In 1986 Portugal joined the European Union.
After the “carnation revolution”, Salazar tried to create a reputation as a “cruel dictator” and “fascist”, however, unlike the same Franco, over the years his popularity in Portugal has only increased. According to the results of the national vote "Great Portuguese" held in 2007, Salazar unexpectedly took first place, and by a huge margin from other contenders. With 41% of the vote, he beat Vasco da Gama (only 0,7%), Luis de Camões (4th-century poet, 2,7%) and Enrique (Henry) the Navigator (XNUMX%).
By the way, the second place in this voting was taken by the general secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party, Alvaro Cunhal, who was repressed by Salazar, with 19,1% of the vote. And in third place was Aristidis de Mendez, the Consul General of Portugal in Bordeaux, who, contrary to the instructions of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, issued many visas to German Jews during the Second World War (there are suspicions that he did not disinterestedly and not for free). The "cruel dictator" Salazar, for this arbitrariness, fraught with serious diplomatic complications, dismissed Mendes with the payment of his full salary, which this "unfortunate sufferer" received until his death in 1954.
The Portuguese authorities continued to be embarrassed by Salazar and only on the occasion of his 120th birthday in 2009 did they clean up his modest grave.
On the stove you can now read:
“Here lies the man to whom Portugal owes the most. He gave all of himself to the Country, taking nothing for himself from the Country.”
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