The birth of the Soviet missile defense system. The greatest Soviet computer

47

Lebedev's monopoly


Let's make a reservation right away that the BESM-6 is a big machine, in every sense of the word. Therefore, to write about it briefly will not work. Due to the abundance of material, I had to cut a huge article into three parts, and each continues the previous one, so for a complete immersion it is recommended to study everything sequentially.

In 1958, Lebedev launched into series simultaneously two versions of his BESM - the military, faster, M-20, and the civilian, slower, BESM-2. At this moment, he actually took a legendary place, similar to Kalashnikov, among computer manufacturers.



The Soviet Union loved monopolies no worse than decaying capitalism, but in our country the schools of various general designers belonging to various ministries were a kind of analogue of corporations.

ITMiVT machines were built in a huge circulation by the standards of the USSR - a total of several thousand copies, including several hundred supercomputers. They stood everywhere - in Dubna, in Arzamas, in Moscow State University, in the MCC, in the A-135 missile defense system, in the S-300 - but it’s easier to list where they were not.

The Lebedev school has achieved such a monopoly that we still live with their legacy, as with the eternal and permanent AK.

How did ITMiVT come to this position?

By 1958, Lebedev had two favorite students and heirs - Vladimir Andreevich Melnikov and Vsevolod Sergeevich Burtsev. The second deserves a separate discussion in connection with "Elbrus", for now let's consider the fate and work of Melnikov.

In 1951, the first graduation of students in the specialty "Mathematical and calculating devices and devices" took place at the MPEI, and the department was created in the same year. The graduation took place because the students were already trained in the design of analog computers within the framework of the specialty "Automation and Telemechanics". At that time there was no talk of digital machines, the head of chief of staff professor G.M. Zhdanov, like almost all scientists of that generation, specialized only in analog machines, in 1956 his textbook "Mathematical machines and devices of continuous operation" was published.

Despite such conservatism, Zhdanov also attracted experts in computer architecture to teaching, in particular, two graduates of the radio engineering faculty of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute - our old friends Kartsev and Matyukhin. Hearing about such a case, many others did not stand aside - also known to us Kitov, Rameev and, naturally, Lebedev, who was just beginning his path to becoming a guru of domestic computer engineering.

As we have already mentioned, Lebedev was an excellent electrical engineer, initially he specialized in energy problems and even built an analog machine in 1945 to simplify network calculations, while working at the Department of Relay Protection and Automation of Power Systems at MPEI.

Back in 1939, in opposition to the dissertation of prof. A.V. Netushila (future dean of the Faculty of Automation and Computer Engineering) Lebedev studied her topic "Analysis of trigger elements of high-speed pulse counters" and thought about a rather unusual architecture of a digital computing cell.

The defense took place only after the war, and after 3 years Lebedev drove off to Kiev to build the MESM (by the way, Khrushchev was then the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of the Ukrainian SSR, and this was how their friendship began). When Lavrentyev pulled him back to Moscow from there (in fact, before that he had invited him there, to the post of director of an entire institute, which was difficult to achieve in Moscow), Lebedev, as we remember, had sketches of the architecture of a large machine.

In parallel with the creation of BESM, he continued to teach at the MPEI and there he recruited his initial team among the first graduates - graduate students, to whom he gave assignments to design the nodes of his new computer (earlier, the diplomas of students were much more interesting: as a graduation work, to develop a node of one of the first computers in Europe is not a transformer box for a dacha village to calculate).

Among the most distinguished in 1951 were V.A. Melnikov and V.S. Burtsev, the latter's life was generally difficult, he lost his parents during the war and treated Lebedev like a father. In addition to this pair, A.G. Louth, I. D. Vizun, A.S. Fedorov and L.A. Orlov.

In general, Lebedev had two very strong sides.

Firstly, he was a first-class organizer who managed to acquire a human resource in the shortest possible time and skillfully adapt it to work, in this only Brooke could compare with him.

Secondly, even here no one could compare with him, despite the outward severity, Lebedev was an extremely charming, calm, flexible and tactful person - qualities that were lacking in transverse Kitov, Brook, Rameev, Kartsev, Yuditsky - and indeed to almost everyone domestic designers who lost to Lebedev's school.

Lebedev is the only one who managed to turn the development of computers into a kind of conveyor belt under his strict guidance. He himself designed (as best he could, in the spirit of the old school) basic logical cells and invented a system of commands (strictly classical in the spirit of the 1940s, and, in fact, he invented only two of them - one used in MESM / BESM / M- 20, and the second for BESM-6), and everything else was done by his students, actually building the machine.

He was also responsible for an extremely important part of any Soviet development - interaction with partocrats.

Lebedev was a kind of Jobs of the USSR - he, like Korolev, knew how to push virtually anything, anywhere, at all levels of the Soviet system, but, unlike Korolev, he was so beautiful and subtle that he did not make money until his death (unlike all other designers) not a single bloodline, and he was loved and respected even by those who lost him to school.

As a result, by the end of 1951, the basis of laboratory No. 1 was made up of graduates of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, who by 1953 had been completing Lebedev's BESM. Melnikov was engaged in the development of a control device and was so successful that when it came to assembling BESM-2, he became its de facto chief designer, as well as the designer of BESM-6.

Almost nothing is known about the initial stages of the development of BESM-6 (it is not even clear why 6 and where 5 were), sensible references are found only since 1964.

Exploring comparable Western architecture can help shed a drop of light.

IBM 7030 Stretch


In 1959, an extremely powerful commercial computer for scientific computing, the IBM 7090, was released and the first two true supercomputers appeared - the IBM 7030 Stretch and the Remington Rand UNIVAC LARC. LARC special footprint in stories did not leave, but the IBM 7030 has become a real icon.


The IBM 7030 The Stretch Data Processing System and what remains of it are now in the Museum in Mountain View - two monstrous engineering consoles for control and debugging and the console of the mathematician-programmer who controls the machine. Standard modular cards, from which 7030 were assembled - in triple-width hands, in a rack - single-width. Below is an example of a matrix multiplication program (photo - archives https://www.ibm.com and museum https://www.computerhistory.org)

First of all, it was the first to achieve performance in excess of a million operations per second - 1,2 MIPS in 1959, a crazy figure; the first to use the SMS system - standard modular cards; the first, during the development of which the basic principles of hierarchical hardware design were discovered and applied, starting from the development of an optimal command system and ending with the implementation of individual modules on standard cells.

The Stretch was the first production computer to use standard ferrite memory modules, with oil immersion cooling, another innovation. In addition, Stretch could read and write into memory in six parallel threads, which made it possible to achieve a speed of working with RAM at the level of 2 MIPS (yes, in those days, a situation was possible when the memory was faster than the processor).

An eight-bit byte and 8/32/64 bit machine words, which is the most convenient and has become a standard until now (unlike the fanatical domestic machine words with a width of 22 to 50 bytes, often not even multiples of the size of the addressable memory cells), also appeared exactly in it, and the Stretch processor was completely 64-bit long before Intel Core. In addition, the computer had hardware support for working with bit fields, which made it possible to work with data types of variable length.

Stretch supported real arithmetic, integer arithmetic, and alphanumeric characters. Also, it was the first to implement multiprogramming and, within this framework, memory protection and standard interrupts.

Stretch was the first in the world to be built on emitter-connected logic circuits, super-powerful and requiring good cooling, but as fast as possible, ECL logic in various guises became the standard for supercomputer hardware until the 1980s.

First use of a XNUMX-stage standard pipeline in a processor (classic Fetch, Decode, Execute steps). We will talk about the conveyor separately below. For the first time in the world, the most flexible and effective (albeit not cheap) universal implementation of work with peripheral devices was applied, which has become the main feature of mainframes to this day.

A specialized data exchange coprocessor (ESC - exchange specialized computer, yes, then there was still no clear terminological distinction, in LARC, for example, each of the two processors was called a "computer", and the I / O subsystem was called a "processor") played the role of the main switch, providing communication between 32 I / O channels and RAM, thereby offloading the central processor. This scheme was so effective that it migrated to the IBM S / 360 and is still used today in large computers.

In addition, Stretch's value was in the fact that it was fully compatible with a colossal list of equipment from IBM - from magnetic drives of all types to typewriters and punchers, and thanks to the channel coprocessor, the whole economy always worked in parallel at full speed, and was connected by simple plugging desired cable.

Soviet engineers, who suffered when trying to cram the unsupported (since almost every non-trivial connection of a large computer with peripherals required monstrous crutches), would cry with relief if they happened to set up Stretch.

The Stretch command system was incredibly progressive, many of the ideas discovered during development by Gene Amdahl, Stephen Dunwell, Fred Brooks and John Cocke are literally used in modern microprocessors and have become the standard. since the 1960s: first for powerful systems, then everywhere. Among them are pre-decoding of instructions and pre-fetching of operands (the first-ever form of speculative execution based on branch prediction), reloading the pipeline after erroneous transitions, advanced index registers, and much more.

The decoding and prediction unit in the Stretch processor was actually a separate computer with its own pipeline. Due to this, while formally remaining uniprocessor, Stretch required only 4 instructions for matrix multiplication. Among other things - the machine turned out to be compact, being 35 times more powerful than the IBM 704, Stretch required the same machine. hall of 185 sq. m. and consumed about the same amount of energy.

In general, it takes a long time to describe the advantages of this machine, the most important thing is that all this is 1959, and all this is described in open sources of that time, as well as the design of UNIVAC LARC.

The most interesting part of the story


And now the most interesting part of the story - Lebedev, as part of a group of Soviet specialists, arrives in the United States in August 1959 at IBM to study the advanced experience of computer engineering. In two weeks, the Soviet delegation visited MIT and IBM factories, got acquainted with the scientific computer 7090 and, in general, with the organization of production and interaction "computer company - customers from universities." Most likely, it was at this moment that a super-idea took shape - to repeat the same in the USSR. To create a powerful computer architecture unified for scientific centers.

The role of IBM was to be played by ITMiVT, and the role of Amdall and Brooks was to be played by Lebedev and Melnikov. It remains to select a prototype car, the role of which was to be played by the future BESM-6.

By the way, Lebedev visited many places - both in Germany, and even in 1965 in Japan, and his protégé Melnikov - in India and China, and nothing has grown together with India, but in China he helped to master the Chinese clone BESM-2 in production ...


The closest competitor of the IBM 7030 is the UNIVAC Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC), in the photo in the Livermore laboratory, its layout with one of the fathers of the machine - John Adam Presper Eckert, Harold Brown and Edward Teller are working over thermonuclear weapons, one of the boxes in which the parts of the car were delivered, there were a total of 18 such trucks, the computer was assembled right on the spot in the laboratory. LARC was the first supercomputer in the world in terms of the idea itself, the concept of creating a supercomputer came from IBM precisely under his influence, but it was completed later than the 7030, and was slower, about 1 MIPS, and also much more expensive, only two machines were built ... LARC was very strange from an architectural point of view, it used 60-bit instructions, binary-decimal encoding, while it was progressive register (up to 99 general-purpose registers), it was supposed to become dual-processor with shared RAM (in fact, it worked fine only in a single-processor configuration ), had a separate I / O processor and a unique chip - Electronic Page Recorder, which allowed displaying text and graphics on 35-mm film for creating slides. To combat parasitic currents, the entire body of the car was covered with gold from the inside, and the contacts on the chassis itself were covered with silver. Photo from the Livermore Archives, http://www.vintchip.com/ and https://www.computerhistory.org

There was no talk of cloning Stretch - the machine was monstrously complex, the Soviet industry would not have pulled it. In addition, many details of the implementation were hidden, and in itself it occupied a slightly different niche that Lebedev aimed at and which the Soviets really needed.

The USSR desperately needed a powerful (much more powerful than anything that was in the scientific research institute at that time), universal, inexpensive (relatively) scientific computer that could be massively reproduced. There were many points of its application - the Kurchatov Institute, Moscow State University, Baumanka, Dubna, Novosibirsk, Arzamas, and so on, all related to nuclear research. BESM-2 and M-20 did not pull - all research centers demanded an analogue 7090, a car with a speed of at least 200 KIPS.

Under this case, Lebedev struck a business trip to the United States, everyone understood that it was necessary to study advanced experience.

To this end, he, the favorite of the Academy of Sciences, ministers and Khrushchev, knocked out funds and assembled a team. The mood was bright, everyone was on the rise - just about the USSR will learn the secrets of effective development of scientific computers and will finally create its own one, instead of the zoo "Minskov", "Nairi", "Uralov" and others, incompatible with each other, released small circulation and insufficiently powerful.

In a sense, Lebedev really wanted to become a Kalashnikov from a computer - to create a reference implementation, a symbol of Soviet power, which could be stamped in hundreds.

Has he coped with his task?

It will not be a spoiler to say that it is not quite.

So why and where did Lebedev fail, and where did the myth about BESM-6 come from?

To answer this question, you first need to go even further to the West.

So, in 1959, Lebedev was inspired to start developing his own architecture - not just a large machine, but a scientific supermachine, built on completely different principles than MESM and BESM, which looked like calculators from the general store against the background of the monstrous 7030.

Who would lead the development - there was no doubt, of course, Melnikov, who had proven himself in BESM and BESM-2.

It was also obvious who would develop the units, the Melnikovskaya group.

Lebedev, as always, took on organizational issues, knocking out funds and general support along the party line, as well as studying world models of computer engineering and developing a system of commands for a new machine. And there was something to study - it was necessary to decide on a prototype for copying.

In 1946, the US Navy created a small company ERA (Engineering Research Associates) from engineers who worked on decoders of Japanese naval codes during the war years. The company developed several civilian vehicles, including the ERA 1103, but Congress condemned the Navy as a commercial vehicle, and in 1952 the company was sold to Remington Rand. Then Sperry (which already owned UNIVAC by that time) in turn bought Remington and spun off the computer division of Sperry UNIVAC, releasing a redesigned ERA as a competitor to the IBM 704 - UNIVAC 1103.

CDC 1604


Sperry was apparently aiming for mass commercial mainframes, determined to become the second largest player in the market after IBM, and in 1957 a group of ex-military engineers got fed up with it. William Norris, Robert Perkins, William R. Keye, Howard Shekels, Robert Kisch and Seymour Roger Cray left Sperry, chipped in 5 dollars and registered their company that has become a legend - Control Data Corporation.

The chief engineer was Cray, one of the greatest computer architects in history, a man without irony called the Father of all Supercomputers.

However, his first work was a much simpler machine - the CDC 1604. Created as a scientific and commercial computer, in a lack of money (the start-up company did not even have the funds for normal transistors, Cray assembled a prototype from defective ones that he could get at a bargain price in local radio parts stores), he immediately uncovered all the incredible power of Cray's genius.

The CDC 1604, being several times cheaper than the monstrous scientific IBM 7090, turned out to be faster than it, for some time becoming the most powerful general-purpose computer on the planet with a performance of about 200 KIPS.

The CDC 1604 had the architecture typical of powerful American machines of the 1950s with an adder, and not the more progressive general-purpose registers (there were only the adder register itself, or the accumulator, as it is sometimes called, 6 index registers, a program counter and an arithmetic auxiliary register) and , respectively, was a unicast, 48-bit machine word contained two 24-bit instructions. The machine had integer and real arithmetic.

An interesting feature was the work indication. The top three bits of the battery could be read by the DAC and played back through the speaker using a tube amplifier built into the console. This scheme could be programmed for a variety of sound effects and warnings to the machine operator. Anyone who knew well the architecture of the CDC 1604 and the executable program could immediately understand by sound where the error occurred.

So, the prototype was found.

The CDC 1604 was cheaper and faster than the IBM 7090, its architecture was simpler, and in a year it sold a colossal circulation to American laboratories. This meant that by 1961 a huge array of Fortran programs had been written for it, among which the coveted software for nuclear scientists was recognized as the most valuable.

It is much easier to screw programs than hardware, so the goal of achieving binary compatibility with the CDC 1604 was from the very beginning.

Even in the USSR they understood that software is more important than hardware, computers can be developed, but where can one get millions of man-hours to write software for them?

In the 1960s, a revolution was supposed to happen - a Soviet computer was supposed to appear with a number of applications that were not inferior to the American ones (and so what if they were supposed to be coiled).

In principle, such a plan would have had a chance of success, but Cray failed.

In the midst of preparations for cloning the CDC 1604, on August 22, 1963, Control Data announced the CDC 6600, one of the greatest machines in history.

IBM was put to shame, they had not yet finished shipping their Stretch to all customers, and Cray's computer had already sent him into the stone age of computer science. By tradition, it was much more compact and cheaper than the IBM monster and 3,5 times faster than it - more than 3 megaFLOPS.

The first ever superscalar processor, 10 peripheral coprocessors, freon cooling (also the first in the world) of the most compact boards assembled using cordwood proprietary technology on the latest planar silicon transistors (400 pieces!), An advanced multitasking operating system SIPROS (Simultaneous Processing Operating System) - here are just a few of the innovations of this machine. The first computer buyers were the Atomic Energy Commission and the Weather Bureau, and by 000 1967 CDC 63s were in the hands of elite customers and became the backbone of scientific research at the time.

Atlant


At the same time, the third iconic supercomputer of that time appears in Great Britain - the famous Atlas (Atlas), developed and produced jointly by the University of Manchester, the cradle of all British computer science, and by Ferranti and Plessey companies commissioned by the government for use in the same difficult business as and CDS and BESM - the creation of nuclear weapons.

Atlas was built on fairly ancient germanium bipolar transistors, but had an incredibly progressive architecture, becoming the third pillar of modern machines, along with the IBM 7030 Stretch and CDC 6600. In total, 3 original Atlas were manufactured and two more upgraded Atlas 2 Titans.

Atlas used the second popular computer word scheme, which was also used in the CDC - the 2/12/24 bit format, instead of the IBM 48/8/16 bit standard (as we know, the more convenient IBM won). A 32-bit machine word could contain one floating point number, one instruction, two 48-bit addresses or signed integers, or eight 24-bit characters.

Among Atlas innovations there was a supervisor (three own registers for the program counter) and virtual memory (full-fledged), work with external devices was organized in a very original way, through separate registers for communication with I / O, the machine had an incredible number of index registers at that time - already 128. In addition, the Atlas processor had a unique asynchronous pipeline that worked on readiness, rather than being clocked as usual.

Because of this, it was difficult to evaluate its performance, but according to tests it roughly corresponded to Stretch (Atlas added two floating point numbers in about 1,59 μs, and Stretch in 1,38-1,5 μs). It was not until 1964, when the CDC 6600 appeared, that the Atlas was significantly surpassed, with Cray later admitting that it was the description of the prototype of this machine that prompted him to ideas that allowed the 6600 to be completed much earlier than originally intended.

Also a unique part of the architecture became the so-called. extracodes - what would now be called firmware, it was they who made it possible to build an operating system that surpasses the speed and functionality of an IBM machine. Extracodes were used to call mathematical procedures that would be too inefficient to implement in hardware, for example, sine, logarithm and square root, about 150 extracodes were responsible for supervisor functions, which significantly increased the productivity and security of working with the OS.


Three sources and three components of the BESM-6 architecture plus Lebedev's unique vision of the details of their implementation. In the photo - the stern Lebedev and the ever-smiling Seymour Cray and Tom Kilburn (photo http://www.histoire.info.online.fr, http://www.besm-6.su, http: //www.chilton-computing .org.uk).

British scientists turned out to be so friendly that they themselves visited the USSR in 1963 and even gave several private lectures at ITMiVT on the Atlas machine, a small brochure was published on their results in the same year. As a result, work on BESM-6 went wild like a swan, cancer and pike. It began to be rewritten from CDC 1604 in order to take advantage of a huge software library, as evidenced by many of the architectural features of the original project that were included in the final version.

In both cases, the element base was transistors (which is normal for 1960, but as strange as possible for 1968), addressing was unicast, word width is 48 bits, command length is 24 bits, 2 commands are packed in a word, adder width is also 48 bits, address width 15 bits, general purpose registers 1 + 1 register-accumulator, accumulator circuit of addition, even the amount of RAM matched up to a bit - 32.768 words.

Naturally, all this was not an accidental coincidence - they began to design the architecture, focusing on CDC 1604. What is amazing - the size of the BESM-6 circuit boards was inch (specifically 6x8 inches), and in general, only hardware was metric. The architecture of the TEZ itself (a typical replacement element, as we called the elementary modules from which the machine was assembled) was also clearly developed with an eye on cordwood boards, albeit with about 6 times less installation density. In the USSR, it was difficult with transistors, so the logic itself was diode, and transistors were used only for amplifying and inverting the signal. As a result, only 60 of them were required, but 000 diodes (the CDC was assembled for 180 transistors).


The design of the BESM-6 modules was partially borrowed from the CDC 6600 with a sixfold lower packing density. The size of the CDC 6600 board is 3 "x 2,5" x 0,75 ", cordwood packing. The size of the BESM-6 board is 6" x 8 "x 0,5". Photo from CDC Brochure - The 6600 Supercomputer and https://www.1500py470.livejournal.com)


Seymour Cray had an amazing talent for finding the most beautiful effective engineering solutions. His cars were not only fast, but also had very powerful charisma and aesthetics, while being incredibly compact. The cross of the central processor, control unit and RAM of the CDC 6600 was only 4 meters in span and 2 in height, it conveniently opened, giving access to all the boards, and was also cooled with freon! The space view of the console with two monitor eyes generally entered the golden fund of industrial design. Photo from the brochure "CDC Brochure - The 6600 Supercomputer" and https://ru.wikipedia.org

And then Lebedev suffered, the fault of which was both his imagination and Atlas and CDC 6600, which appeared in the process of creating BESM-6.

From the first he desired extracodes and virtual memory, from the second - a superscalar pipelined processor with an orthogonal instruction system. Many technical solutions were also rejected - for example, the idea of ​​channel work with peripherals, really successful in IBM machines. From 1960 to 1963, there were throwing - let's start one car, continue with the second, add the chips to the third.

As a result, horns and legs remain from the original CDC 1604 project.

Lebedev threw out integer arithmetic from the machine, since he could not achieve stable operation of the integer-real ALU, changed the format of real numbers (1 bit sign, 11 bit order, 36 bit mantissa for CDC 1604, 7 bit order, 1 bit sign, 40 bit mantissa for BESM-6) and command structure (6-bit opcode, 3-bit index or transition condition, 15-bit address or operand for CDC 1604 and two possible options: 4-bit index register, 6-bit opcode, 12-bit address / operand, or 4-bit index register, 4-bit opcode, 15-bit address / operand for BESM-6). Due to an attempt to organize virtual memory, the number of index registers was expanded from 6 to 15.

The command system has been completely redesigned.

The CDC 1604 had 11 integer instructions and 4 real, 9 shift instructions, 8 logic instructions, 15 memory instructions, 6 index arithmetic instructions, 4 jump instructions and 3 I / O instructions, 57 in total. BESM-6 had 12 real commands, 2 shift commands, 7 logical commands, 5 commands for working with memory, 8 index arithmetic commands, 7 jump commands and one (!) I / O command, 41 in total.

An interesting feature of BESM-6 were special bit commands, including “CLEARING THE NUMBER OF UNITS” and “CLEARING THE HOMEPA OF UNITS”. These teams were directly ripped from CDC 6600 and represent the so-called. "NSA Instruction" - instructions added at the request of the NSA to supercomputer processors for the convenience of cryptographers.

For example, calculating the number of ones is the command popcount, say popcount (10100110) = 4. It first appeared in the IBM Stretch processor and was then built into all older CDC and Cray machines until the 1980s and the end of the Cold War era and classic supercomputers ...

Why is it necessary?

Calculate the Hamming distance from the zero string in binary encoding. The NSA was cryptanalyzing the intercepted messages, and since the CDC 6600 had 60-bit words, one word was enough to store most of the alphabets of interest.

Cryptanalysts divided the message into lines, marked each unique character in the line with a single bit, calculated the Hamming distance using popcount and used it as a hash for further cryptanalysis. Unfortunately, it is not known whether at least one BESM-6 of the GRU or the KGB was used, the author strongly doubts this and thinks that these instructions were altered, rather, for presentation purposes - like look, our car can do that!

The instructions "ASSEMBLY" and "DISASSEMBLY" are a selection of certain bits by a mask, screwed specifically to organize at least some sane input-output of printed characters, as the old-timers mention, for example, these commands were used to transpose 80x12 matrices to work with punched cards. The transformation of a word into a textual octal representation was done by disassembling into groups of three bits per byte, in the GOST encoding, the codes of the numbers were immediately obtained. By assembly, the textual representation of octal numbers was converted into the actual number.

Naturally, it was impossible to assemble either Atlas or CDC on the Soviet element base, it was necessary to make a bunch of patches and crutches. One of the designers, V.N. Louth:

... there were no integrated circuits at that time.

[Here, unfortunately, Louth is disingenuous, since they were no longer just there, but they were used to assemble serial computers, including in the USSR, just Lebedev did not consider it necessary for some of his philosophical reasons to use them ].

The industry produced discrete germanium diodes and triodes with very poor performance.

[Again, there were some pretty decent silicon ones, but ...]

Was it possible to develop elements for a high-performance machine on them? By this time, there were many reports in the special literature about the use of tunnel diodes as a basis for high-speed logic circuits.
These diodes had short switching times, many times better than those of transistors. However, the elements based on tunnel diodes turned out to have a poor load capacity, which led to the complication of the machine circuits, and we quickly abandoned them. The difficulty with using transistors was that they worked very slowly in saturation mode, and logic gates with unsaturated triodes were complicated due to the need to match the levels of input and output signals. And not only difficult, but also unreliable. For some time we have not seen a way out of the impasse. But then a completely new idea arose, never and nowhere previously described, at least for elements of computing technology.
In my opinion, A.A. Sokolov. The essence of the idea was to introduce an autonomous power source, galvanically not connected to other power circuits, into the well-known "current switch" element. For example, a miniature electronic clock battery could be used for this purpose.
The inclusion of a battery between the collector of the transistor and the collector load (resistor) made the switch an element with matched levels of input and output signals, and no particularly complex requirements were imposed on an autonomous power source. Of course, the battery could not be installed, since it will discharge over time, so in the real circuit it was replaced by a tiny rectifier consisting of a miniature transformer on a ferrite ring, two semiconductor diodes and a capacitor.
These rectifiers were called "suspended power supplies" (PPS). The paraphase outputs of the current switches, equipped with emitter followers, could operate on the inputs of the AND, OR logic circuits. The following circuitry emerged: passive combinatorial logic based on diode-resistor components

[The whole world had switched to TTL and ECL by then.]

connected to the inputs of amplifying active elements, the outputs of which, in turn, were connected to the inputs of combinatorial circuits, etc. Thus, the electronic body of the machine looked like a layer cake: layers of diode logic circuits were interspersed with layers of amplifiers on current switches.

In general, the element base of the first version of BESM-6, as we can see, was monstrous even at that time (and even by the standards of the USSR, which is even more striking!), But nevertheless, as usual, we have a good reason to be proud of how masterly we overcome the difficulties we ourselves have created.


Lebedev's Chinese letter in describing the structure of BESM-6. All the schemes of the machine were executed in this form, by Lebedev's own logical mnemonics. Acceptance tried to force him to rewrite it all in human form, but he flatly refused. On the right is an original leaflet from Cray's notebook describing the structure of Cray-1 (photo https://www.computerhistory.org)

Experience the Power of Effective Results


The result of all this was the emergence of a real mutant, externally (that is, in terms of bus width, machine word length, etc.) similar to CDC 1604, but assembled with elements of Atlas and CDC 6600, seasoned with a pinch of Lebedev's own unique vision and put on hardware implementation , perverted even by the standards of the USSR.

In 1963, students began to model the nodes of the future BESM-6, for a start, practicing the technology of working with transistors, which at the ITMiVT had no particular idea about at that time. It all ends with the fact that, according to the recollections of the younger student of Lebedev (with a smaller caliber than Melnikov) A.A. Gryzlov, they simply implemented the nodes from the M-20 on transistors, calling the resulting creation BESM-3.

Surprisingly, as we have already said, his initiative was supported by the head of the group and achieved launch into a mini-series, this is how a side sprout appears on the ITMiVT tree - BESM-4, to which Lebedev had nothing to do. According to the memoirs, Lebedev himself was not very pleased with such self-will, he did not care about BESM-4, all his attention and forces were absorbed by the BESM-6 project, but he did not interfere with the youth and even pressed a couple of levers in the party, which allowed him to launch the four in small batch with record speed.

In 1964, the institute had already assembled a prototype BESM-6, which had only one memory cube; slower transistors were used in the logic elements. In 1966, a prototype that had half-capacity random access memory (4 cubes instead of 8), but on modern transistors and diodes, operating at the design synchronization frequency, was already largely debugged, and factory tests were carried out on it in the fall, and in May 1967 year ended state tests.

BESM-6 was mass-produced from 1968 to 1987, a total of 355 cars were produced, the machine in Dubna was turned off in 1992, the penultimate (in the Mikoyan Design Bureau) was turned off and dismantled in 1995, but the very last ...

BESM-6 No. 345


BESM-6 No. 345 was manufactured in 1980, in 1981 it was registered in military unit 87286 (Sosnovy Bor, Leningrad Region), in 1982 it was set up by a team of the Moscow specialized chief assembly department, in 1983 it was introduced as a central computer of a complex full-scale simulator "Diana-Bars", developed by the specialists of the NITI them. A.P. Alexandrova. Its debugging continued until 1986.

Pay attention, by the way, to the typically Soviet imposing approach to installations, which says a lot about the quality of architecture and equipment. Installation of the machine took a year, another year was taken by unhurried debugging of the software (despite the fact that by the 1980s the experience and software had already been accumulated for 10 years!), Three more years were spent with the simulator, as a result, the machine was able to calculate something useful only after six (!) years after its release.

And this was considered a regular installation mode! At the same time, damned capitalism rotted to such a stage that the announcement of a delay in the installation of one or another machine for at least a couple of months became a reason to break the contract with heavy fines.

The fate of Cray-3 is indicative in this regard, it was supposed to be bought by Livermore in 1991, but the laboratory immediately revoked the contract as soon as it learned of the delay in delivery, and the failure to fulfill the contract hit Cray's reputation so much that he could only sell his supercomputer The US National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the military and laboratories refused to work with it, despite past merits.

In 1993, Cray-3 was installed in NCAR, but for a year it was not able to achieve stable operation, after which it was dismantled, and Cray Research went bankrupt.

In the USSR, the installation and debugging of even a serial computer that was already being produced for 13 years by that time could easily take five years of unhurried finishing work in place, and this was perceived as an absolute norm - the Union, it seems, was in no hurry.


From the category of "obvious-incredible". Unique photos of the last fully alive BESM-6 No. 345 in military unit 87286 (photo https://ramlamyammambam.livejournal.com)

Returning to BESM-6 No. 345, it was launched in 1986 and worked ... until 2008!

This is something beyond good, evil and common sense. It was used as a computer for a simulator of submarine crews, and for the last 10 years it has been working literally on an honest unprintable word; the personnel have been doing their best to keep the museum antiquity in working order far beyond its official service life.

The further fate of the rarity is unknown - it is possible that the BESM-6 of the Polytechnic Museum is she, perhaps the old woman ended her life in a furnace for scrap metal.

At the same time, pay attention to the magic of Lebedev - only 6 years passed from the development of the BESM-3 itself to the series, and for purely objective reasons, fiddling with the documentation for the car, debugging, etc., while Kartsev was driven from office to office by party officials six years and brought him to a heart attack, and after his death it took the staff another 1,5 years to finish the release of M-13!

Сonclusion


And finally, the burning question, did it happen?

Did you manage to create a niche computer covering the needs of Soviet research institutes? Equivalent to CDC 1604 that will run all the programs you need?

Alas, no, here Lebedev screwed everything up.

An attempt to focus on three sources and three component parts of the architecture at once led to failure - BESM-6 lost compatibility with CDC 1604 enough to proudly be considered a separate architecture and enough to stop running the coveted millions of lines of American code, for which everyone and started.

Lebedev was too clever, and as a result, it was not possible to achieve binary compatibility - Fortran programs, which compiled perfectly and worked on CDC, dropped out on BESM-6 in the most unexpected places. To correct them, even whole textbooks and monographs began to be written (for example, Borovin G.K., Komarov M.M., Yaroshevsky V.S. "Errors-traps when programming in FORTRAN"), but valuable time wasted away, the tasks stood.

As a result, the colossal project ended with mixed feelings, even during the testing phase in 1966.

The question remains - what to do now?

The consequences were as follows.

First, it was firmly decided not to be perverted anymore, but to simply and accurately copy the entire Western architecture in order to achieve binary compatibility. Lebedev himself, to his credit, realized the mistake and was no longer eager to design anything and, moreover, at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences supported the idea of ​​borrowing S / 360 (this should be discussed separately).

Secondly, Melnikov was no longer allowed to develop independently. The BESM-10 project did not even begin, only descriptions and drafts were preserved, and "Electronics SS BIS", for which he was responsible until his death, was to become a clone of Cray-1.

Thirdly, in the country's most important nuclear center, Dubna, it was necessary to urgently deliver something that works with American software, as a result diplomacy got involved and attempts were made to buy or steal, exporting through neutral countries such as Switzerland, the real CDC 1604, and also better - CDC 6600. Attempts were only partially successful.

CDC 1604 was used by the US Navy and also to control the launch of the Minuteman I, therefore it was a military technology, but by 1968 it was discontinued and obsolete, so the Control Commission did not object to its supply. In 1968 (simultaneously with BESM-6) CDC also settled in JINR.

Of particular interest is that the CDC company itself was not opposed to selling anything anywhere, even to North Korea, and William Norris, its director, wrote a special letter to his Congressman Richard T. Hanna, asking him to exclude the corporation from accusations of cooperation with the communists:

My Dear Congressman Hanna: On Wednesday, December 5, 1973, testimony was given before the Subcommittee on International Cooperation in Science and Space of the House Science & Astronautics Committee by Mr. Benjamin Schemmer, Editor, Armed Forces Journal International. This testimony included the statement that Control Data Corporation had advanced the status of Soviet Computer technology by fifteen years with the sale of a Control Data 6200 computer. Such a statement regarding transfer of technology to the USSR is simply not factual and we are prepared to correct that misstatement as well as other incorrect and misleading references to Control Data's activities with the USSR at the pleasure of your Committee. Meanwhile we respectfully request the consideration of the following. We have offered to the Socialist countries only standard commercial computers, and these offerings have been in full compliance with the export control and administrative directives of the Department of Commerce ...
All countries including the Socialists have a substantial base of computer hardware technology on which to build further advances in the state of the art. The major strength of the US in computer technology is its ability to market superior cost / performance computer systems for a wide range of applications. This does not mean that for any given application or group of applications, another country cannot build the equivalent as far as performance is concerned or even exceed what the United States has available. Also, there is no evidence to my knowledge that the USSR has ever been prevented from carrying out a military project because of the lack of adequate computer technology ...
We respectfully request that your Committee review the above points and consider incorporating them into the record. We would be pleased to have the privilege of appearing before your Committee to give you our more detailed views on these potential relationships with the Socialist countries and in stating our reasons in support of the Administration and Congressional trade initiatives and objectives.
Letter from William C. Norris, Chairman of
Control Data Corporation to Congressman
Richard T. Hanna, 1973.

The delivery with the machine included a compiler with Fortran, and with source codes, and the JINR programmer team under the leadership of Nikolai Nikolaevich Govorun was inspired by them and tried to write an analogue for BESM-6, since it refused to work directly.

As a result, I first had to write an assembler (the autocode with Lebedev's mnemonics was so inconvenient that in practice it was not used), then the loader, library support, and the rest of the operating system, which was logically named Dubna.

Naturally, this was a well-deserved reason for pride - the hard work of the professional programmers department was carried out by physicists and amateur engineers, the result was generally satisfactory.

A direct continuation of this story awaits us in the next article.
  • Alexey Eremenko
  • https://ru.wikipedia.org, https://www.ibm.com, https://www.computerhistory.org, http://www.vintchip.com/, http://www.histoire.info.online.fr, http://www.besm-6.su, http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk, https://www.1500py470.livejournal.com, https://ramlamyammambam.livejournal.com
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  1. +10
    12 December 2021 06: 21
    Even this was enough for me to confirm my guesses about why in the USSR there was such a backwardness in the semiconductor element base. Raikinskoe "SCHB" (Warehouse for Cast Iron Blanks) in all its glory and with a detailed analysis.
    1. +16
      12 December 2021 08: 41
      As a child, he was the owner of a computer Lvov. A fundamentally non-working machine, with problems in the software. Therefore, to madness I used ZX-Spectrum, paired with a cassette tape recorder Electronics and a black-and-white TV Banner! 8 shades of gray, 5 minutes of a cat's concert from tape and 48 KB of memory + red Resets button !!! The dream of any teenager in the late 80s and early 90s !!!
      To the author for the story, low bow and thanks !!!
      1. +4
        12 December 2021 12: 06
        I join you! Only thanks to this cycle, it became a little clearer for me (quite far from electronics) how it works! Respect to the author hi Have a nice day, everyone))
      2. +7
        12 December 2021 12: 28
        8 оттенков серого

        The Spectrum used a rather tricky organization of screen memory. One black-and-white familiarity 8x8 (8 bytes) corresponds to a coloring byte. 3 digits - the main color, 3 digits - background color, 1 bit - brightness and 1 bit - "blinking". On a black-and-white TV set, the RGB mixture was output through a resistor divider-mixer. So the shades turned out to be 16. But not for a pixel, but for the whole 8x8 square at once.
        Sinclair saved a lot of screen memory on this. And also on the "border" around the edges .. Yes, and it was in the general address space of 64 k. And drawing "black on black" when booting from a tape recorder made it possible to use screen memory for auxiliary pieces of code when "unfolding" a toy, without an eye blight. In general - the machine was a kind of a masterpiece of cheapness with excellent performance.
        1. 0
          12 December 2021 12: 49
          Quote: dauria
          8 оттенков серого

          The Spectrum used a rather tricky organization of screen memory. One black-and-white familiarity 8x8 (8 bytes) corresponds to a coloring byte. 3 digits - the main color, 3 digits - background color, 1 bit - brightness and 1 bit - "blinking". On a black-and-white TV set, the RGB mixture was output through a resistor divider-mixer. So the shades turned out to be 16. But not for a pixel, but for the whole 8x8 square at once.
          Sinclair saved a lot of screen memory on this. And also on the "border" around the edges .. Yes, and it was in the general address space of 64 k. And drawing "black on black" when booting from a tape recorder made it possible to use screen memory for auxiliary pieces of code when "unfolding" a toy, without an eye blight. In general - the machine was a kind of a masterpiece of cheapness with excellent performance.

          As far as I remember, there was a special "insert" button, which gave the opposite gamut of colors on the screen.
          1. +1
            12 December 2021 13: 05
            As far as I remember, there was a special "insert" button, which gave the opposite gamut of colors on the screen.

            I don’t remember exactly. Blinking in the built-in BASIC seems to be an "insert", and "Flash" is like brightness. There was also a "border" -the color of the edge and also a pencil and a background. BASIC was not particularly interesting, except for the "randomize yusr" - going directly to the codes. ... But in hardware it was the 8th bit of the "color" part of the screen area. I remember that through the KP11 multiplexers, access to the RAM by addresses was for the Z-80 processor and that set of small logic, which is now called the video processor, and then at the same time it also performed RAM regeneration. Eight bits of black-and-white byte were output in the telestring sequentially, colored the same for a whole 8x8 square. Ones - in the main color plus brightness, zeros - in the background color. Blinking (inversion) was hardware with a frequency of about 1 Hz.
            Then I was surprised that the addressing jumps across 8 television lines. Then I realized that Engineer Sinclair had minimized the screen processing commands. What is now called high FPS /
  2. +8
    12 December 2021 07: 51
    A simple machine, like a Kalashnikov assault rifle. Only punched cards sometimes "chewed". We repaired it ourselves and pretty quickly.
  3. +8
    12 December 2021 09: 04
    The author in his role:
    First of all, it was the first to achieve a performance of over a million operations per second - 1,2 MIPS in 1959, a crazy figure ...
    - for 1959 1,2 MIPS is really cool. That's just for all, without exception, reference books, the IBM 7030 Stretch dates back to 1961. The IBM 1620 on transistor modules later used in the IBM 7030 was announced by IBM on October 21, 1959 and marketed as an inexpensive "scientific computer." Then the IBM 7090 appeared. Does the author confuse the IBM 1620 or the IBM 7090 with the IBM 7030?
    Stretch was the first in the world to be built on emitter-connected logic circuits, super-powerful and requiring good cooling, but as fast as possible, ECL logic in various guises became the standard for supercomputer hardware until the 1980s.
    - and again past the checkout. According to all references, Stretch was transistorized:
    The IBM 7030 is the first transistorized supercomputer from IBM. Also known as Project Stretch.
    ...
    Designed for the 7030, the Standard Modular System transistor logic module system became the basis for most of the transistor computer models of IBM, including the IBM 7090 series of scientific computers, the IBM 7070 and 7080 commercial computers, the IBM 7040 and IBM 1400 series, and the IBM 1620 small scientific computer.



    The photo shows a domestic ESL produced in 1982 and an IBM 7030 transistor module.
    The author confuses transistor logic modules with ESL integrated circuits. The first series of ECL chips, the MECL I, was introduced by Motorola in 1962. ESL chips really got very hot and were used until the 80s. IBM stopped using transistor modules like the IBM 7030 in the early 60s.
    And now the most interesting part of the story - Lebedev, as part of a group of Soviet specialists, arrives in the United States in August 1959 at IBM to study the advanced experience of computer engineering.
    ...
    BESM-6 was mass-produced from 1968 to 1987, a total of 355 cars were produced, the machine in Dubna was turned off in 1992, the penultimate (in the Mikoyan Design Bureau) was turned off and dismantled in 1995, but the very last ...
    - You had to be an outstanding super-duper computer genius to spend 9 years developing a mixture of a bulldog and a rhino from three western cars.
    According to the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences, from 1991 to 2013, Yu.S. Osipov, unique developments of S.A. Lebedeva
    determined the main road of world computer engineering for several decades to come
    - Lebedev clearly laid these pillars across the road of Soviet computer building.
    Lebedev threw integer arithmetic out of the car, since he could not achieve stable operation of an integer-real ALU
    - the genius who paved the main road of the world computer engineering did not know how to build integer processors - was the achievement of computer engineering in the early 50s? !!! Wow!!!
    Fully tell stories! In the 60s, computers were divided into commercial and scientific. Commercial were universal and were intended, among other things, to create Automated Control Systems (ACS). With the advent of CRAY-1 in 1976, scientific computers began to be called supercomputers.
    To implement an ACS, a computer must be able not only to perform floating point operations, but also to process texts. For this, the computer has an integer processor and a floating point coprocessor. Processing text on a floating point processor is like hammering in nails with a microscope.
    Lebedev was an ardent opponent of the use of computers in the national economy. Therefore, he advocated exclusively for the creation of only scientific computers WITHOUT AN INTEGRAL PROCESSOR. BESM-6 initially did not provide for the possibility of creating an automated control system on its basis; these were vain attempts to slap a supercomputer.
    Lebedev himself, to his credit, realized the mistake and was no longer eager to design anything and, moreover, at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences he supported the idea of ​​borrowing S / 360 (this should be discussed separately)
    - Lebedev was the most ardent opponent of the S / 360 and pushed BESM-6 as its alternative. Initially, the development of a preliminary project for the development of an analogue of the S / 360 was entrusted to ITMiVT:
    The report presented by the institute in mid-1966 did not satisfy the ministry, since it showed the lack of interest of the authors of the report in the creation of such a series of machines in the USSR ...

    Until now, within the walls of ITMiVT S / 360, this is a terrible curse. Lebedev's point of view was best expressed by his colleague and student, RAS Corresponding Member B.A. Babayan:
    ... Unfortunately, it is now unknown who exactly in the country's leadership made the criminal decision to curtail the original domestic developments and develop electronics in the direction of copying Western counterparts. Perhaps he was either an insufficiently intelligent person who was not able to competently assess the situation in his industry, or a lobbyist for Western corporations or governments, skillfully introduced into the government of the USSR. There were no objective reasons for such a decision.
    One way or another, but from the beginning of the 70s, the development of small and medium-sized computer technology in the USSR began to degrade. Instead of the further development of well-developed and tested concepts of computer engineering, the huge forces of the country's computer science institutes began to engage in "stupid" and, moreover, semi-legal copying of Western computers. However, it could not be legal - there was a "cold war", and the export of modern "computer-building" technologies to the USSR in most Western countries was simply prohibited by law.
    ...
    The calculation was that it would be possible to steal a lot of software - and computer technology would flourish. This, of course, did not happen. Because after everyone was herded into one place, creativity ended. Figuratively speaking, the brains began to dry from completely uncreative work. You just had to guess how Western, in reality outdated, computers were made. The advanced level was not known, they were not engaged in advanced developments, there was a hope that the software would flood ... It soon became clear that the software did not flood, the stolen pieces did not fit together, the programs did not work. Everything had to be rewritten, and what was taken out was ancient and did not work well. It was a deafening failure. The machines that were made during this period were worse than the machines that were developed before the organization of VNIITSEVT ...

    It remains to add that VNIITSEVT is a successful competitor of ITMiVT, therefore, in the mouth of Babayan, this is another common curse word. At present, Babayan, a patriot of domestic computers, works for Intel and does not consider it a crime.
    1. +1
      12 December 2021 09: 58
      Lebedev was an ardent opponent of the use of computers in the national economy.

      But Botvinnik thought differently ...
      On YouTube:
      Save the USSR. Botvinnik's idea | TV channel "History"
      Maybe it's time to change our managers to AI?
    2. 0
      12 December 2021 12: 36
      Quote: Old electrician
      - and again past the checkout.

      My knowledge on the topic is near-nonel, but can you trust the author who writes such nonsense?
      The Soviet Union loved monopolies no worse than decaying capitalism
    3. 0
      13 December 2021 01: 17
      Stretch was the first in the world to be built on emitter-connected logic circuits, super-powerful and requiring good cooling, but as fast as possible, ECL logic in various guises became the standard for supercomputer hardware until the 1980s.

      This is written by the author.
      - and again past the checkout. According to all reference books, Stretch was transistorized ... The author confuses transistor logic modules with ESL integrated circuits. The first series of ECL chips, the MECL I, was introduced by Motorola in 1962.

      The Old Electrician writes this.
      And here is what Computerworld magazine writes on October 17, 1977. The magazine, by the way, is very solid. So on page 14.

      Yes, he writes that Motorola, and that in 1962. Only in parentheses indicates that IBM was using the ECL version on the IBM 7030 in the mid-1950s.
      Probably with criticism of the author The old electrician got excited. Maybe knowledge gaps?
      1. -1
        13 December 2021 04: 40
        Emitter-coupled logic (ECL, ECL) is a method of constructing logic elements based on differential transistor stages. ESL was invented in August 1956 by IBM engineer Hannon S. Yourke. ESL was used in transistor modules of computers Stretch, IBM 7090, and IBM 7094, etc. before the appearance of integrated circuits. ECL chips appeared in 1962 and were not used in Stretch.
        The author writes:
        Stretch was the first in the world to be built on emitter-connected logic circuits, super-powerful and requiring good cooling, but as fast as possible, ECL logic in various guises became the standard for supercomputer hardware until the 1980s.

        The author confuses the circuitry solution of ESL transistor modules Stretch and integrated circuits ESL, to which Stretch has nothing to do.
        1. 0
          13 December 2021 07: 42
          The author confuses the circuitry solution of ESL transistor modules Stretch and integrated circuits ESL

          Not sure what is confusing. Perhaps I just didn't express myself clearly enough.
  4. +6
    12 December 2021 09: 27
    In pursuit.
    BESM-6 clearly did not qualify for the title of supercomputer. The only thing that had in common with a supercomputer was a highly specialized purpose for scientific calculations. Unlike BESM-6 computers of the IBM System / 360/370 model series are known as universal computers. They could simultaneously be used for scientific and engineering calculations, image processing, maintain databases of terabyte volumes, serve local and global networks, etc. However, in performance BESM-6 was inferior to its IBM System / 360 75 model that appeared a year earlier. The IBM System / 1967 360 model, which appeared in 91, was already twice as powerful as the BESM-6, and the IBM System / 370 165 model from 1971 by 7 times. Since BESM-6 did not have an integer processor, it was inferior in performance even to the youngest IBM System / 360 models when performing financial calculations and word processing. BESM-6 did not have network communication channels for a long time.
    BESM-6 was serially produced until 1987, so its lag behind Western models continued. In 1977, BESM-6 surpassed the performance of the VAX-11/780 mini-computer (1 MIPS at a clock frequency of 5 MHz) by DEC, and in 1982 it was surpassed by the Intel 286 microprocessor (1.28 MIPS at a clock frequency of 12 MHz).
    The author stubbornly pushes the ideas of anti-Sovietism. I should please him in this regard. Keldysh and Lebedev, who killed the Soviet computer industry, were ardent allies of Nikita the Wonderworker in the fight against Stalinism. Lebedev and Keldysh took part in the persecution of T. D. Lysenko, having no idea about biology. Both of them are signatories of the libelous "letter of 300" against Lysenko. It's like printing a Help.
    Both of these academicians made their careers with slander and denunciations. In 2008, Vladimir Igorevich Arnold, Professor of the Department of Differential Equations of Mehmat of Moscow State University, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, gave an extensive interview. The entire interview can be found on the Internet. Here is just an excerpt:
    ... The general meeting of the committee awarded the prize, but Lyudmila Vsevolodovna Keldysh (who was an opponent of my Ph.D. thesis) warned me: “Fear Slavka - he wants both Seryozha (her son) and you to be made the same generals from science as he became himself. But when he graduated from the Mechanics and Mathematics department, he had a choice - either to become a general from science, or they would be shot, like many of his friends. And now no one wants to shoot you and Seryozha - do your science calmly, do not fall for the bait thrown by Slavka. "
    - they themselves scribbled denunciations, and then told tales that they were fleeing by denunciations from executions.
    If Lebedev and Keldysh had lived to see Perestroika, they would have been its outstanding foremen. Therefore, the fact that Lebedev laid the pillars across the road of Soviet computer building is the norm for an anti-Soviet, and not an accident.
    1. -5
      12 December 2021 11: 07
      Lebedev and Keldysh took part in the persecution of T. D. Lysenko, having no idea about biology. Both of them are signatories of the libelous "letter of 300" against Lysenko. It's like printing a Help.

      And they did the right thing. There was no bullying, there was a cleansing of the scientific community from the pseudo-scientist.
      1. +3
        12 December 2021 13: 02
        Etc. Is Lysenko a pseudoscientist? Have you tried to read the wiki? Answer two questions:
        1. How old is Comrade. Lysenko was "on horseback"?
        2. Was he repressed?
        And somewhere I read that the main reason for his resignation was that he was a loser in the virgin land issue. He believed that it was not necessary to climb onto the virgin lands, but rather to invest in the European part of the USSR, and finally achieve a sane harvest on the already available areas.
        1. +6
          12 December 2021 15: 11
          A few numbers.
          In the chernozem belt of the RSFSR, the yield of winter wheat in the 1955-1961s was 21,1 centners per hectare. In 1962-1966 it increased to 26 kg / ha.
          Even the ancient Slavs knew that virgin lands only give a crop for a short time. Therefore, doing slash-and-burn farming, they constantly moved from place to place.
          Unlike the ancient Slavs, the laws of nature are not written to the Weismanists-Morganists, but you cannot deceive her. Because nature does not read newspapers. The yield of virgin lands in Kazakhstan in the first harvest was 8 c / ha. After that, problems with soil erosion began and the yield "sank" to 6 c / ha. This is less than in the patriarchal peasant farms of pre-revolutionary Russia, which did not provide marketable grain. Those. virgin lands were not a substitute for central chernozems.
          But it was necessary to invest in virgin lands like in a bottomless barrel. There was a continuous stream of machinery, people, fertilizers, building materials, etc., and so on. And all this at the expense of the donor regions, already ravaged by the war. It could pay off only due to the ruin of traditional farming areas. As a result, at the beginning of 1964, there were 8 thousand lagging collective farms in the country, including most of them in the RSFSR. On the collective farms, it became elementary to lack people, as a result, the area of ​​grain began to decline. There was simply no one to handle them.
          The corn company was superimposed on the virgin soil. The guaranteed yield of corn in the USA is 120 kg / ha. The corn yield in the USSR from 1953 to 1960 was 7,5 c / ha. Because, according to the Weismanist-Morganist ritual, it was imperative to sow American seeds of "hybrids of incucted corn lines" purchased for gold. Only one problem. The American "Corn Belt" with its unique natural conditions for growing corn is located in the subtropics. There is nothing like this on the territory of the former USSR. The northernmost point of the American corn belt is located south of Tashkent, Crimea, Krasnodar and Stavropol. The USSR had its own varieties of corn, but the Morganist Weismannists assured Nikita the Wonderworker that all this was bullshit compared to the American ones. However, any idiot, except for the Weismanist-Morganists, understands that one cannot sow with unreleased seeds. Therefore, such a yield is not surprising. As a result of the experiments of the Weismannist Morganists, the store shelves remained empty until the end of the USSR.
          While Lysenko was President of VASKHNIL, he blocked both virgin lands and corn. As soon as he was overthrown, both went to "Hurray!"
        2. 0
          12 December 2021 15: 13
          Etc. Is Lysenko a pseudoscientist? Have you tried to read the wiki?

          I read it.



          1. How old is Comrade. Lysenko was "on horseback"?

          If we consider the directorship of the Institute of Genetics, then 25.
          But this is not an indicator of scientific character. Comrade Stalin's Institute of Steel and Alloys was headed by the great scientist Avramy Zvenyagin, then he became the first deputy minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

          2. Was he repressed?

          No, of course, times have changed, they just downgraded to a zavlab. The truth is in Leninskiye Gorki. tongue
          The party members loved him, 3 out of 8 Orders of Lenin were presented by Khrushchev, by the way. So virgin soil is not in business.
          1. +4
            13 December 2021 08: 43
            Have you tried to read the wiki?
            - I tried and for a long time after that I burst out laughing, almost tore my tummies. You would also refer to "Völkischer Beobachter" and other priceless creations of Mr. Goebbels.
            Wiki is a gray western anti-Soviet propaganda project. If in the technical articles of the Wiki, distortions of meaning are still quite rare, then in political articles there is sheer total lies at every step. In academia, citing Wiki articles is as decent as farting into a microphone in a podium.
            As for your link to Vika's article on Lysenko, in the West he is one of the three most hated people:
            1. I.V. Stalin who defeated fascism.
            2. L.P. Beria, founder of the Soviet nuclear industry.
            3. Etc. Lysenko, who made an invaluable contribution to the supply of food to the front.
            Currently, more and more people in Russia are coming out of the state of being zombified by Western propaganda from the era of the 20th Congress of the CPSU and Perestroika. A rethinking of its history is taking place in the country, and this causes extreme anger in the West. An example of such anger is Sam Keane's December 2017, XNUMX article in The Atlantic.
            The deadliest scientist of the Soviet era is gaining popularity in Russia again
            - this is an article about Lysenko. My impression is that the West hates Lysenko even more than Stalin and Beria combined.
            Domestic Weismannists-Morganists, like the entire Russophobic fifth column of modern Russia, cannot take a step without looking back at their teachers from the West. Currently, the caretaker of biological science in the Russian Federation is a staff propagandist of the Washington Regional Committee, an ardent anti-Soviet, Master of Historical Sciences (University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), 1984) Mark Tauger. It is he who sets the guiding propaganda cosines to our fighters in the fight against the long-dead Lysenko and throws tantrums about the appearance of objective articles about Lysenko in the Russian Federation. You can read his nonsense on the Internet, against the background of Vicki she will please you even more. I will illustrate the extent of Lysenko's influence on Western scientific thought with a quote from one article by Mark Tauger:
            This article was originally presented at the Second International Workshop on Lysenkoism, June 22–23, 2012, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, which is funded in part by the US National Science Foundation. My work was also supported by West Virginia University
            .
            Through the efforts of the President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Keldysh, together with Lebedev, who ruined the Soviet computer industry, Lysenko was deprived of all posts. Since 1966, he was banned from publishing and giving interviews. Everything he did was spat upon and excluded from reference books and encyclopedias. In 1976 he died in oblivion, but still haunts the West, which contains entire institutions and conducts international seminars to fight Lysenko. Stalin and Beria do not even dream of such glory. Rereading Lysenko's works, it remains to say that life must be lived in such a way that even 100 years after death, enemies would urinate in their pants from one view of your monument.
            1. -4
              13 December 2021 10: 56
              I tried it and for a long time after that I burst out laughing, almost tore my tummies to pieces. You would also refer to "Völkischer Beobachter" and other priceless creations of Mr. Goebbels.
              Wiki is a gray western anti-Soviet propaganda project.

              Do you know where the information on Wikipedia comes from? winked

              As for your link to Vika's article on Lysenko, in the West he is one of the three most hated people:
              1. I.V. Stalin who defeated fascism.
              2. L.P. Beria, founder of the Soviet nuclear industry.
              3. Etc. Lysenko, who made an invaluable contribution to the supply of food to the front.

              Nobody knows him there at all. Except for narrow specialists.
              And why should they hate Lysenko for supplying the front with food, they themselves sent us 5 kilograms of food. According to the calculations of Professor M.N. Suprun from the Pomor State University named after MV Lomonosov (Arkhangelsk), this was enough to supply an army of 000 million for 000 days.

              Through the efforts of the President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Keldysh, together with Lebedev, who ruined the Soviet computer industry, Lysenko was deprived of all posts. Since 1966, he was banned from publishing and giving interviews.

              He was not deprived of anything, he served to the end as the head of the laboratory of the Experimental Research Base of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR "Gorki Leninskiye". You remember where Vavilov sat. feel
              1. +1
                13 December 2021 13: 45
                And why would they hate Lysenko for supplying the front with food, they themselves sent us 5 kilograms of food.

                - I appreciate your love for Americans, but I do not share it.
                The USSR received 4,478 million tons of food under Lend-Lease. In terms of 200 million of the population, this is 22 kg. products to a person for 4 years of war. The 800-thousandth Mongolia delivered 0,5 million tons of meat during the same period. This is more than the Lend-Lease supply of meat from the United States. In addition to food, Mongolia supplied warm clothing, 0,5 million horses, and much more. The USA supplied us with 54 thousand tons of wool, and little Mongolia - 64 thousand tons. Therefore, every fifth overcoat of the front pore was "Mongolian". It was help from a pure heart, and it began from the first days of the war. Unlike Lend-Lease, supplies for which began only when it became clear that the USSR was capable of ending Hitler on its own.
                From its own resources, the Red Army alone received 40 million tons of food during the war. The total grain harvest during the war amounted to 211 million tons. The population alone raised at least 120 million tons of potatoes during the war years (I did not find the general figures for potato production during the war). Therefore, unlike some, I am not ready to kiss passionately American coattails for a lend-lease handout.
                The Americans have never been our allies, their unfulfilled dream of turning us into a bloody mess, wiping us off the face of the earth. However, their Wishlist was broken off by Stalin, Beria, Lysenko and others, all those who built the Great Power of the USSR. This hatred of the West for Russia and those who did not sell it was, is and will be. This hatred will not go anywhere.
                A military conflict even with a sexually mafia-like Russia is fraught with great risks for the West. As long as we exist, they will strive to destroy us from the inside. As the USSR has already been destroyed. Therefore, the West needs people like Yeltsin and his admirers, who hate their country's past. To do this, they pay a lot of money to the likes of Tauger and pro-Western NGOs. Against the background of what has been said, I have the impression that you have completely dropped out of the surrounding reality.
                As for Vavilov, he sat down quite rightly - they will put you up, but you don’t steal! This did not affect the supply of the country and the front with food. He had nothing to do with science and agriculture.
                1. -1
                  13 December 2021 14: 22
                  - I appreciate your love for Americans, but I do not share it.

                  It's not about love, it's about logic. The Americans needed us to continue the war. Therefore, we were fed and tanks with planes were sent. And there was no point in hating Lysenko for that. request

                  And they hate him. About 100 people in the states know about him. lol
                  1. 0
                    14 December 2021 08: 34
                    It's not about love, it's about logic. The Americans needed us to continue the war.
                    - to put it mildly, I'm crap from your logic. I'm telling you about the international anti-Lysenkov seminar in 2012, and you start to carry some kind of blizzard about Lend-Lease, and about the fact that the United States was supposedly our allies. What kind of war for the Americans were we supposed to continue in 2012? The Washington training manual says that any dispute should be translated into the outstanding role of Lend-Lease in victory?
                    The allies you love so much. Truman's dictum, published in The New York Times on June 24, 1941:
                    If we see that Germany is winning, then we should help Russia, if Russia is winning, then we should help Germany, and thus let them kill as much as possible
                    - As I understand it, serving the Americans is the highest degree of bliss for you?
                    If it comes to that, the first anti-Lysenkovo ​​company in the USA was started in 1945.
                    In 1948, at the VIII International Genetic Congress, held on July 7-14, 1948 in Stockholm (Sweden), it was for the first time announced that people in the USSR were shot for the words “genes” and “chromosomes” alone.
                    And they hate him. About 100 people in the states know about him.
                    - about 100 people you got excited. For a propaganda campaign describing the horrors of Mordor, one, maximum ten propagandists of the Washington Regional Committee is enough. The rest will be done by the Western and domestic media and the world's most advanced Soviet / Russian creative intelligentsia. They, like hyenas, will devour anyone objectionable to the Washington Regional Committee.
                    In 1945, the Antilysenkovskaya company was headed by the idol of the domestic Weismannists-Morganists, the Great American scientist Sachs. As a scientist, he is known only for his anti-Lysenkov propaganda, repeated by all the domestic media of our days. Sachs is such an outstanding scientist that his biography is not even on Wiki.
                    The 1948 company was headed by the eugenicist fascist G.J. Möller, who devoted most of his speech at the congress to criticizing attitudes towards genetics in the USSR. Möller detailed the "military" regime of science management, regretting that genetics "is viewed by a dominant group of officials as a terrible heresy", and named the "heroic and tragic" names of the victims of this attitude of power to genetics. The domestic fifth column from Möller's speech was writing boiling water from the community. It turns out that it was not they who scribbled the denunciations, but they themselves were persecuted for genetics.
                    At present, Tauger, already mentioned by me, and 5 - 10 other full-time propagandists of the Washington regional committee are the overseers of biological science in the Russian Federation. Judging by your furious attacks, they do not eat their bread in vain.
      2. +1
        12 December 2021 13: 36
        Another fan of the Weismannist Morganists? To speak clever phrases, you need to have at least a basic understanding of the subject of the dispute. There is Weismanism-Morganism, it is classical or formal genetics and there is genetics. The relationship between Weismannism-Morganism and genetics is the same as between alchemy and chemistry, astrology and astronomy, phlogiston theory and such a science as thermodynamics.
        At the beginning of the 1883th century T.Kh. Morgan and his collaborators, based on the work of Weismann from XNUMX (hence the name Weismanist-Morganists), formulated the CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF HEREDITY. This theory claims that the transmission of characteristics and properties of an organism from generation to generation (heredity) is carried out through chromosomes (which, in general, no one has ever, including Lysenko, questioned). But then Morgan starts outright nonsense.
        According to the main religious dogma of the Weismanist-Morganists, the organism consists of a body (soma) and a germplasm completely independent of it. The germ plasma is passed on to the offspring unchanged. Therefore, the parent organism is nothing more than a by-product of the fertilized egg or zygote from which it arose.
        From this nonsense, in turn, it follows that the descendants are everywhere and always an indistinguishable copy of their ancestors, any deviations of signs are impossible. - Tell this tale to Covid who mutates every week. In practice, this means that the development of new varieties of plants and new breeds of livestock was prohibited by the Weismanist Morganists as anti-scientific.
        Since the 20s, classical genetics has been the official party science in the USSR in the vilest sense of the word. Lysenko encroached on "sacred". He developed new methods of breeding varieties and breeds, which refuted the basic religious dogmas of Weismanism-Morganism, not confirmed by any experiments. Therefore, in 1936, he was persecuted.
        Since Lysenko, unlike the Weismanists - Morganists, made a real contribution to the strengthening of the country and especially a contribution to the victory in the Great Patriotic War, Stalin restrained the ardor of the Weismanists-Morganists and saved Lysenko from their denunciations. Incidentally, Lysenko, in contrast to the leading Weismanist Morganists, was non-partisan.
        After his death, Nikita the Wonderworker started a state anti-Stalinist campaign and gave the go-ahead to any anti-Soviet meanness. Therefore, in 1953, a new stage began in the persecution of Lysenko and the basest slander against him. The apotheosis was "letter 300". In it, all the dogs were hung on Lysenko, including the accusation of the collapse of anti-religious propaganda, to which he had nothing to do. Moreover, those who were the first to rush to synagogues during the years of Perestroika were especially crying about anti-religious propaganda.
        After "letter 300" Lysenko resigned from the post of President of the All-Union Agricultural Academy. Before that, he was the only obstacle on the way of the corn scam, started by the Weismanists - Morganists, and only with his departure they were able to pull it off.
        The corn company of Nikita the Wonderworker is the only agricultural “achievement” of the Weismannist Morganists in the USSR and modern Russia. The introduction in the USSR of "hybrids of inducted corn lines" according to American technology was conceived by Vavilov. Under Stalin, this did not work, but the Weisman Morganists Zhukovsky and Dubinin convinced Khrushchev. Do you think Nikita could have uttered without stammering "it is necessary to purchase hybrids of incucted corn lines"? The Weismannists-Morganists themselves remained in the shadows, but Nikita was completely burnt out. Food production in the USSR collapsed, but the Americans, as Vavilov had already conceived, we made rich. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the corn company was one of the first steps towards the destruction of the USSR.
        The fact that in the USSR they were allegedly imprisoned for genetics is a fairy tale invented by the Weismanists-Morganists under Nikita the Wonderworker. Vavilov himself did not sit down at all for genetics. The following charges were brought against him:
        1. Undermining and confusing seed and breeding business.
        2. An attitude to deal with abstract, scientific and theoretical questions, to study cultures that cannot be applied even in the distant future in the economy of the USSR.
        3. Organization of an anti-Soviet group.
        4. Espionage.
        I am ready, with the facts in hand, to confirm all the charges except espionage. Although, on the other hand, on his trips abroad, Vavilov hobnobbed with White Guard emigrants and had foreign currency accounts abroad. In 1940, this charge alone would have been enough for the tower.
        There was no bullying, there was a cleansing of the scientific community from the pseudo-scientist.
        - it was not just a persecution, but an anti-Soviet campaign, supported by some functionaries from the Central Committee of the CPSU and all Western media. As a result of this campaign, the pseudoscientific community of the USSR and the Russian Federation was completely purged of scientists. The interest of the West is obvious here. We are currently 100% dependent on imports of seeds, chickens, livestock breeds, etc., etc. In conditions of confrontation, this is the most powerful economic lever in the hands of the West. To organize hunger with us, they now have to spit. But with the dissertations of Weismann-Morganists, we are all hockey, and in breeding fruit flies we are ahead of the rest.
        1. -1
          12 December 2021 14: 41
          Another fan of the Weismannist Morganists?

          Ага. Yes
          Are you still hoping to turn rye into wheat with the "plant-raising method"? Oh well. Although, if you try, then in a couple of thousand years it can work out. Yes

          By the way, Lysenko called his opponents not Weismann-Morganists (although August Weismann deserves this), but Mendelists-Morganists.

          In honor of Gregor Mendel, whose laws of inheritance are now being studied at school and to whom an entire hall of the Darwin Museum is dedicated.

          Here is Lysenko's speech at the 1939 discussion.
          http://lysenkoism.narod.ru/l39-1.htm
          1. 0
            13 December 2021 06: 18
            Have you read the quoted article yourself? Or have you read it, but have not understood anything?
            Quote from http://lysenkoism.narod.ru/l39-1.htm:
            If these varieties are not received within the specified period, the economic event will be disrupted. Who will be scientifically responsible for this disruption? I think that it is not Mendelism or Darwinism in general, but primarily Lysenko, as the head of the Academy of Agricultural Sciences. sciences and as an academician in the section of selection and seed production. Therefore, if the Mendelists, having mobilized their science, gave at least a hint of how to get a rye variety at 2-3 years old in 3-5 years - a wheat variety adapted to the harsh Siberian conditions, can you really think that I would give it up ? Of course, I would not refuse, I would accept a valuable offer. After all, three years are not far off; almost a year has passed since the receipt of the specified task.

            “Therefore, if the Mendelists, having mobilized their science, had given at least a hint of how to get a rye variety in 2-3 years” - gee-gee-gee! Mobilize, keep your pocket wider! According to the life-giving doctrine of invariable germplasm, the selection of new varieties is impossible. Because according to the second law of Mendel's name (Mendel would have turned over in his grave, having learned that the Weismannists-Morganists attributed to him), splitting will inevitably occur in the second generation and all hybridization will return to its original state.
            Lysenko agreed with Mendel's work that his experiments (Mendel did not call it a law!) On the splitting of signs are carried out only on a large sample. And only for some organisms. In animal husbandry, for example, Mendel's second law “three for dad and one for mom” definitely does not work.
            For his scientific and practical work, T.D. Lysenko was awarded:
            • Title of Hero of Socialist Labor (1945), for the successful completion of assignments to provide the front and the country's population with food, and industry with agricultural raw materials;
            • 8 Orders of Lenin (30.12.1935/10.06.1945/10.09.1945; 29.09.1948/27.10.1949/19.09.1953; 27.09.1958/15.09.1961/XNUMX; XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX; XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX; XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX; XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX; XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX);
            • Order of the Red Banner of Labor of the Ukrainian SSR (1931);
            • Stalin Prize of the first degree (1941) - for work on summer planting of potatoes and planting freshly harvested potatoes;
            • Stalin Prize of the first degree (1943) - for the development and implementation in agriculture of a method of planting potatoes with the tops of food tubers. Do not count how many people in the war he saved from death from starvation by this work alone;
            • Stalin Prize of the first degree (1949) - for scientific research in the field of advanced Michurin biological science, summarized in the work "Agrobiology" and others.
            Lysenko really created new varieties, for which the Weismanist-Morganist charlatans hated him. Because they themselves could not create anything. Take Tsitsin as an example.
            Nikolai Vasilievich Tsitsin (6 [18] December 1898, Saratov - 17 July 1980, Moscow) - Soviet botanist, geneticist and breeder. Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1939), VASKhNIL (1938; vice-president in 1938-1948). Twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1968, 1978); Laureate of the Lenin Prize (1978) and the Stalin Prize of the second degree (1943).
            In the late 20s, Tsitsin promised to develop frost-resistant varieties of perennial wheat for Siberia by crossing wheatgrass and wheat. In the field of this "crossing", he acquired academic degrees and academic titles, prizes and awards. He spent his whole life creating a hybrid of wheatgrass and wheat. After his death in 1980, the topic was declared hopeless and closed. Among the Weismanist Morganists, Tsitsin is revered as a saint, because in 1948, with a denunciation of Lysenko, he personally went to see Stalin.
            Now Lysenko solved the problem of frost resistance. It is known that winter wheat gives a higher yield than spring wheat, but they freeze out in Siberia. Lysenko investigated the problem and found out that the cause of freezing is blowing snow. In 1942 he proposed stubble crops to solve the problem of snow retention. This made it possible to save time, motor resources and fuel while increasing yields, which became a huge help for the belligerent country.
            In the West, this technology is called the No-Till system; in Canada, it is used by 80 to 90% of farms. Naturally, they do not refer to Lysenko. Why glorify a person who is spat upon in his own country?
            In 1954, another campaign of persecution of Lysenko began. As a result, by the end of the 50s, No-Till was banned in the USSR as anti-scientific.
            In 1966 Lysenko was deprived of all posts, it became possible to plunder his ideas with impunity, and A.I. Baraev, "the founder of the soil-protective system of agriculture", who introduced No-Till in Kazakhstan, was "flooded" with happiness:
            - Academician VASKHNIIL (1966);
            - three Orders of Lenin (23.06.1966/23.08.1968/3.03.1980, XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX, XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX);
            - Honored Scientist of the Kazakh SSR (1968), etc., etc.
            It is profitable to fight Lysenko!
            Another example of a successful Weismanist Morganist. Tsitsin's associate Dubinin (the one who scientifically blessed Nikita for the corn company) became a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences for the outstanding work done in the spring of 1945, and dedicated to the influence of the Great Patriotic War on the chromosome apparatus of fruit flies in the vicinity of the city of Voronezh.
            Dubinin Nikolai Petrovich - Russian geneticist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1966), academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991); awarded the Order of Lenin (1967), Hero of Socialist Labor (1990). Works on evolutionary, radiation and space genetics, history of Soviet genetics. Book of memoirs "Eternal Motion". Lenin Prize (1966). One of the foremen of Perestroika. There is no positive contribution to the theory and practice of agriculture, as the scientist became famous for fighting Lysenko.
            The degree of your blatant illiteracy is best conveyed by this phrase:
            Are you still hoping to turn rye into wheat with the "plant-raising method"? Oh well. Although, if you try, then in a couple of thousand years it can work out.

            The method of plant upbringing was proposed by the outstanding scientist I.V. Michurin. Lysenko only promoted this method, always referring to Michurin's authorship. The upbringing method is intended for breeding winter-hardy varieties of heat-loving plants. It has nothing to do with the transformation of rye into wheat. You are here repeating the shameless nonsense of the Weismanist-Morganist gang of pseudo-scientists. Like Keldysh and Lebedev.
            Michurin bred several hundred times more varieties than the entire Weismanist-Morganist gang. And they took revenge on him:
            For nearly twenty years, "Mendelism" became a dirty word. Lysenko residents made their banner the name of the humble gardener I.V. Michurin, who studied little theory (and, by the way, was interested in Mendel's works) ...

            About the humble gardener-practitioner, who did little theory:
            Michurin, Ivan. Vladimirovich - Russian, Soviet biologist and breeder, author of many varieties of fruit and berry crops, Doctor of Biology (1934), Honored Worker of Science and Technology of the RSFSR (1934), Honorary Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1935), Academician of VASKhNIL (1935), Honorary Member Czechoslovak Agricultural Academy (1935). He was awarded the Orders of St. Anna, 3rd degree (1912), Lenin (No. 165, June 1931) and the Order of the Red Banner of Labor. Three lifetime editions of collected works.
            1. -2
              13 December 2021 11: 10
              Have you read the quoted article yourself?

              Separate the flies from the cutlets. (Genotype from phenotype lol ).

              Before Lysenko, people were engaged in plant and animal breeding for thousands of years.
              Aunt Klava in her garden will also grow the best potatoes in the village in a couple of years, if she plant the largest, and not the "planting" small, like everyone else.
              But this does not mean that Klava should be given an academician and allowed to determine the scientific directions of biology. wink

              It's about the fundamental point - where is hereditary information and how the process of inheritance of traits occurs.

              If it were not for Lysenko, it is possible that Vavilov would have received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure of DNA, and not Watson and Crick. request

              https://topwar.ru/157792-hronika-padenija-sovetskoj-genetiki.html
              1. -1
                13 December 2021 12: 43
                If it were not for Lysenko, it is possible that Vavilov would have received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure of DNA, and not Watson and Crick.
                -hy-hey-hey! Did you try to teach the materiel?
                Weismanist-Morganist Vavilov had nothing to do with genetics. An outstanding Soviet geneticist (not a Weismanist-Morganist) was A.N. Belozersky.
                BELOZERSKY Andrey Nikolaevich (August 16 (29), 1905 - December 31, 1972) - an outstanding Soviet biologist, biochemist, one of the founders of molecular biology in the USSR. Hero of Socialist Labor. Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1962; Corresponding Member since 1958), Vice President of the USSR Academy of Sciences (May 28, 1971 - December 31, 1972). Conducted research on the composition of nucleic acids and their distribution in various organisms. Received the first proof of the existence of m-RNA. He laid the foundations of genosystematics.
                Genetics as a science arose before Weismanism-Morganism. In the years 1868-1872. The Swiss biochemist I.F.Mischer isolated a substance from the cells of pus (leukocytes) and salmon sperm, which he called nuclein, and later received the name deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
                In the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Thanks to the works of L. Kessel, P. Leuven, E. Fischer, and others, it was established that DNA molecules are linear polymer chains consisting of many thousands of monomers connected to each other — deoxyribonucleotides of four types. These nucleotides are formed by the residues of the five-carbon sugar deoxyribose, phosphoric acid, and one of four nitrogenous bases: purines - adenine and guanine, and pyrimidines - cytosine and thymine.
                In the early 30s A.N. Belozersky was the first in the USSR to start a systematic study of nucleic acids (NK). At that time, two types of NK were known: thymonucleic acid (DNA), isolated from the thymus of a calf, and "yeast" (RNA), found in yeast and wheat seedlings. The first was called "animal" and the second - "vegetable". The first significant works performed by A.N. Belozersky, refer to the question of "animal" and "plant" NK. In 1934, articles by A.R. Kizel (Russian and Soviet biochemist, professor at Moscow University. Founder of the Department of Plant Biochemistry at Moscow State University. Teacher AN Belozersky) and AN Belozersky, in which the presence of thymonucleic acid in plant cells was proved. A.N. Belozersky was the first to isolate and identify thymine, first from seedlings of pea seeds, and then from seeds of other legumes. From horse chestnut seeds, he isolated the DNA itself. Subsequently, the presence of RNA and DNA was confirmed in linden buds, onion bulbs, and wheat germ. The results obtained by Belozersky made it possible to reject the division of NC into “animal” and “plant” and to confirm the concept of the universal distribution of DNA in both plant and animal cells. It was an outstanding discovery for the time, worthy of the Nobel Prize. However, Vavilov and his gang of pseudoscientists ignored Belozersky's discovery, because he was not a Weismannist Morganist.
                According to Morgan, genes are unrecognizable balls on a string. Where the key concept is "unknowable". Unknowable means from God and there is no need to purify them to know them. Morgan's admirer Vavilov would never have thought of refuting his idol! What the fuck is the DNA structure ?!
                N.I. Vavilov advanced the chromosomal theory of heredity by the fact that, according to his assurance, the number of types of genes in nature is finite (!!!) and new types of genes cannot arise - hello to all breeders of the world! According to Vavilov, due to the lack of types of genes in nature, organisms of different species that have the same traits, for example, thorns or the color of petals, contain the same genes.
                Since the number of types of genes is finite, all a breeder can do is select the desired genes from the list to obtain the desired traits in the plant. If the necessary genes are not on the list (in nature), then this means that the breeder can no longer rock with his wishlist - the Law of homologous series in the hereditary variability of Vavilov's name is called. Vavilov even suggested collecting a list of these genes-traits in a table like Mendeleev's. Do you think that this nonsense could result in the discovery of the structure of DNA?
                Vavilov did not even think about how to string the necessary genes on a string - this is not a tsar's business. Just don't tell the tales that he foresaw genetic engineering. On the other hand, stupid breeders, without delving into the depths of Vavilov's thought, and unaware of the finiteness of the number of genes, in less than 100 years, obtained more than 10000 garden forms of begonias alone, which have no analogues in the wild. According to Vavilov, it turns out that they have concocted more than 10000 new types of genes without such an outstanding science as Weismanism-Morganism.
                PS. Could you tell me how Lysenko prevented Vavilov? They worked in different organizations in different cities. There was no personal conflict between them. It was not Lysenko who scribbled denunciations against Vavilov, but Zhukovsky, Vavilov's deputy, who marked him in his place, later one of the scientific organizers of the corn scam. Lysenko does not have a single article criticizing Vavilov. The conflict between Lysenko and Vavilov is one of the carefully cultivated myths of the Weismanist Morganists.
                1. -2
                  13 December 2021 14: 29
                  An outstanding Soviet geneticist (not a Weismanist-Morganist) was A.N. Belozersky.

                  I agree. 50%. You cannot be a geneticist and at the same time NOT a Weismanist-Morganist. winked

                  And yes, had it not been for Lysenko, perhaps Belozersky would have received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure of DNA, and not Watson and Crick. lol
                  1. 0
                    14 December 2021 03: 35
                    The impression is that someone has an autumn aggravation. Is Lysenko also to blame for the extinction of dinosaurs? In general, it is typical for the Weismannist Morganists to blame Lysenko for everything.
                    Pseudoscience Weismanism-Morganism was everything for Vavilov. Famous quote from him:
                    Let's go to the fire, we will burn, but we will not give up our beliefs

                    True, the Weismanists-Morganists did not rush to the fire, but sent them on denunciations of their opponents. So, for example, Meister and Tulaykov were shot on the basis of denunciations of the Weismanist Morganists. Both were brought to death by the kublo of Weismanist-Morganists from the Saratov Institute of Agriculture and Land Reclamation - Vavilov's alma mater, where he began his pseudoscientific activity. However, according to modern myths of the Weismanist-Morganists, Lysenko is still to blame.
                    MEISTER Georgy Karlovich (April 15, 1873, Moscow - January 21, 1938, Saratov) - Soviet scientist in the field of selection and seed production of grain and leguminous crops. Supporter of Michurinsk agrobiology, sung in Vicky. Doctor of Biological Sciences (1934), Professor, Academician of VASKhNIL (1935). Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1929), Order of Lenin (1935), Order of the Badge of Honor (1936). Repressed, rehabilitated on December 26, 1957.
                    Nikolai Maksimovich Tulaykov (July 26 [August 7] 1875, Akshuat, Simbirsk province - January 20, 1938 [1]) - Russian scientist - agronomist and soil scientist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1932) and VASKhNIL (1935). Laureate of the V.I. Lenin (1930) "for outstanding work in agricultural technology", Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1932) and VASKHNIL (1935), Honored Worker of Science and Technology (1929).
                    Author of over 400 scientific publications on agriculture, dry farming, plant physiology, agrochemistry, soil science and plant growing.
                    In August 1937 he was arrested, died in the Solovetsky camps (according to other sources, he was shot in the Saratov prison).
                    Thank God that the Morganist Weismanists did not get to Belozersky, because Belozersky was an empty place for Vavilov. Vavilov never dealt with DNA issues, like all Morganist Weismanists, and did not intend to study - for this he had to be a scientist, and Morganist Weismanists were not.
                    As President of VASKHNIL, it was Vavilov who should have sent a submission on Belozertsev to the Nobel Committee in 1934-1935, but, of course, he did not. Because he did not have an elementary understanding of the subject of research. What else is DNA nafig if a gene is an unrecognizable ball on a string!
                    In August 1939, the XNUMXth International Genetic Congress took place in Edinburgh (Scotland). The list of the delegation to this congress was made by Vavilov. It goes without saying that Belozersky was not included in this list. And what has to do with Lysenko, in whose works Belozersky is never mentioned anywhere?
                    I agree. 50%. You cannot be a geneticist and at the same time NOT a Weismanist-Morganist.
                    - gee-gee-gee! It is useless for the illiterate to explain that Weismanism-Morganism not only has nothing to do with genetics, but is not a science either.
    2. +3
      12 December 2021 15: 03
      In 1977, BESM-6 surpassed in performance the mini-computer VAX-11/780 (1 MIPS at a clock frequency of 5 MHz) from DEC,

      In 1980, we moved our programs from BESM to VAX as soon as we got it.
  5. +2
    12 December 2021 15: 00
    earlier, students' diplomas were much more interesting: as a graduation work, developing a node of one of the first computers in Europe is not a transformer box for a summer cottage to calculate)
    Well, at FALT MIPT they also did this in 1978 - the diploma was part of the scientific report of the leading organization (TsAGI, TsIAM, LII). And now I do the same with my graduates.
  6. Aag
    +4
    12 December 2021 16: 05
    hi
    ... Absolute Oak in this topic. (Albeit one of the core ones in my VUS) ...
    The author, -unambiguously "plus", - for information, volume, (I can, as not a specialist, be wrong, but the amount of work done, you must agree, inspires respect) ...
    And, most importantly, the level of presentation, - nowadays, you rarely find this on popular resources ...
    I must admit that some authors of alternative comments deserve respect ...
    And ... It is worth evaluating the number of comments under the article ... Minimum !!! (Especially, considering the volume, depth, articles ... - I will leave the conclusions made by the Author outside the scope of the discussion, because, I repeat, not special ... ).
    To all those present - health, harmony, and other benefits ...! hi
  7. +3
    12 December 2021 17: 02
    Copied - very bad. Developed our own - also very bad. How to beat, won't you tell?
  8. +3
    12 December 2021 22: 15
    It’s somehow strange - they didn’t manage to create their own, and they didn’t manage to import someone else’s. Well, how did you implement the nuclear program, aviation, astronautics? On what was? And on what? From a series of articles, it seems that it did not, or almost did not work
  9. +1
    13 December 2021 13: 50
    Another anti-Soviet ... I don't even know what to call it.
    The fact that the search for an optimal solution was going on (and not only in the USSR, but also in the bourgeoisie) was a sideline. For the bourgeois, the presence of assorted computers, both in architecture and in ideology, is the norm, for the USSR it is a mortal sin.
    Failures of the bourgeoisie - no big deal, and mentioned in passing, for the USSR - "everything is gone ...". Lebedev got along with the party elite - they brought out the image of a half-toad, the American writes letters to the congressman - everything is fine!
    Were there any shortcomings in the USSR? There were !!!, But there were also achievements !!! When describing BESM-6, an image of a so-so machine is created. But this so-so machine was produced in a huge circulation for the USSR, and there seemed to be no big problems with the reliability of its operation, given the frankly weak element base. Including BESM-6 made a significant contribution to the national economy.
  10. +1
    13 December 2021 15: 15
    With more than extensive material, the author has tailored a perspective that has no semantic meaning. According to his plot, Sharashka Gavrikov traveled abroad in the hope of either getting something for the needs of the defense industry, or gaining some mind, returning to her homeland, she made a compiled monster, on which none of the coveted software obtained by KGB agents worked. New edition 'from Russia with a grin'. A well-established machine that worked effectively in centers with decent peripherals, multitasking OS and remote access before the era of personal computers. She worked everywhere, from the defense industry to research institutes of various calibers, and everywhere she received only good reviews.
  11. 0
    14 December 2021 17: 50
    Alexey, you are wrong. The last BESM-6 was bought and installed in the KBM-GRTs named after Makeeva. I myself spoke with the staff who dragged it in, launched it, and then serviced it. In the dashing 90s, one enthusiast suggested assembling an analogue of BESM-6 on a modern element base. I myself had these papers in my hands. Moreover, in the GRC it was far from the first BESM-6. When they were written off, I do not know.
  12. 0
    14 December 2021 18: 10
    Quote: Arzt
    Have you read the quoted article yourself?

    Separate the flies from the cutlets. (Genotype from phenotype lol ).

    Before Lysenko, people were engaged in plant and animal breeding for thousands of years.
    Aunt Klava in her garden will also grow the best potatoes in the village in a couple of years, if she plant the largest, and not the "planting" small, like everyone else.
    But this does not mean that Klava should be given an academician and allowed to determine the scientific directions of biology. wink

    It's about the fundamental point - where is hereditary information and how the process of inheritance of traits occurs.

    If it were not for Lysenko, it is possible that Vavilov would have received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure of DNA, and not Watson and Crick. request

    https://topwar.ru/157792-hronika-padenija-sovetskoj-genetiki.html

    Here you are wrong. Large potatoes do not grow large. It all depends on the variety, soil, fertilizer, care and weather. Zoning is also important.
    1. 0
      1 February 2022 01: 19
      It looks like it will surprise you.

      In 1932, Vavilov recommended that Lysenko be elected an academician of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. In the same year, he included him in the Soviet delegation to the VI International Genetic Congress. (Only Vavilov went to the congress). At his suggestion, Lysenko received a cash bonus twice. In 1934, Vavilov recommended Lysenko as a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, arguing that "although he published relatively few works, the latest works represent (...) a major contribution to world science."

      On May 23, 1934, after nominating Lysenko for academician “in biological or technical sciences” of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Vavilov argued that “in the field of plant biology — and indirectly in plant breeding — the discovery of T. D. Lysenko is the largest event in world science ".

      On June 17, 1935, at a meeting of the VASKhNIL Presidium, Vavilov declared: "Lysenko is a cautious researcher, the most talented, his experiments are impeccable." At the end of 1935, in the Kremlin, at a meeting of party and government leaders with advanced collective farmers, Vavilov delivered a speech in which he noted "the brilliant work that is being done under the leadership of Academician Lysenko", believing that his "teaching on staging is a major world achievement in crop production."
  13. 0
    18 December 2021 04: 32
    I agree, it is stated close to the truth of life. I suggest the author, for objectivity, along with the architecture of the software and hardware, indicate the element base on which all this “economy” at that time was forced to perch.
  14. 0
    24 December 2021 01: 49
    Instead of developing our input-output of information, we rested on Yusov's development. On what and burned. We went on about the commies from politics and it turned out not a breakthrough, but so. At that time, there were no international agreements on the assignment of the Latin alphabet and special characters to the "clave". And there would be Cyrillic now, but history knows no change ...
  15. 0
    4 January 2022 17: 00
    Interesting. Let us know when there will be a continuation.
  16. 0
    12 January 2022 11: 15
    I found CM2000 at the institute ... what level is this car?
  17. 0
    2 February 2022 18: 47
    Quote: Zaurbek
    I found CM2000 at the institute ... what level is this car?

    Most likely SM-2M. Analog HP-21 MX. In the US, it's the mid 70's. Ours is 1983.
  18. 0
    17 February 2022 09: 32
    Quote: Alexander Ivanov
    Instead of developing our input-output of information, we rested on Yusov's development. On what and burned. We went on about the commies from politics and it turned out not a breakthrough, but so. At that time, there were no international agreements on the assignment of the Latin alphabet and special characters to the "clave". And there would be Cyrillic now, but history knows no change ...

    And now go on about who?
    By the way, you should be logical, show where Marx and Lenin have erroneous recommendations on input-output systems ... Or go to the doctor on the same issue of entering information.

    Problems are clearly not with Marx. On this topic, grandfather Krylov wrote in the fable "Monkey and Glasses"
    Those who could not understand even Marx - - definitely will never be able to create their own normal computer. Input - - output. in the brain is connected upside down!
  19. 0
    2 August 2022 13: 44
    As for the "scientific" prickly baby. I recommend - ITU, it is on the Internet (I have it on paper too), open the first page to the letter "B", the first article about the kolyun, and try to find at least some kind of scientific achievement. And the next article is about the Great Scientist, Physicist, Sergei Vavilov. Read it for comparison (who does not know - the students received the Nobel Prize for his results - it is not awarded to the dead). Kolyuni had one scientific "idea" - about homosexuals ... THUK, who will you start about ... HOMOLOGICAL SERIES of plants, and he spent the money that he were given to search for more productive varieties that we could zone. It's a pity - too late the parasite from science (worm) was unscrewed the head for misappropriation of funds.
    И Doctor, about discoveries - this is not to the pole, in science he was impotent. But hangouts, self-promotion....worming - parasitism - this is the Great Master....along with accomplices.

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