The fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire
29 May 1453, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, fell under the blows of the Turks. Tuesday 29 May is one of the most important dates of the world stories. On this day, the Byzantine Empire, founded back in 395, ceased to exist due to the final division of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into the western and eastern parts. With her death ended a huge period of human history. In the lives of many peoples of Europe, Asia and North Africa came a radical change, due to the establishment of Turkish rule and the creation of the Ottoman Empire.
It is clear that the fall of Constantinople is not a clear distinction between two epochs. Turks even a century before the fall of the great capital established in Europe. And by the time of the fall, the Byzantine Empire was already a fragment of its former greatness - the power of the emperor extended only to Constantinople with its suburbs and part of the territory of Greece with islands. Byzantine 13-15 of centuries can be called an empire only conditionally. At the same time, Constantinople was a symbol of the ancient empire, considered to be the “Second Rome”.
Prehistory of the fall
In the XIII century, one of the Turkic tribes - Kayy - led by Ertogrul Bey, squeezed out from the nomads in the Turkmen steppes, migrated to the western direction and stopped in Asia Minor. The tribe assisted the sultan of the largest of the Turkish states (it was founded by the Seljuk Turks) - the Rumsky (Koni) sultanate - Alaeddin Kay-Kubad in his struggle with the Byzantine Empire. For this, the sultan gave Ertogrulu to the Lena land in the area of Bithynia. The son of the leader Ertogrul - Osman I (1281 — 1326), despite constantly growing power, recognized his dependence on Konya. Only in 1299, he took the title of Sultan and soon subdued the entire western part of Asia Minor, winning a number of victories over the Byzantines. By the name of Sultan Osman, his subjects became known as Ottoman Turks, or Ottomans (Ottomans). In addition to the wars with the Byzantines, the Ottomans fought for the subordination of other Muslim possessions - by 1487, the Ottoman Turks had established their authority over all the Muslim possessions of the Asia Minor Peninsula.
A large role in strengthening the power of Osman and his successors was played by the Muslim clergy, including local orders of dervishes. The clergy not only played a significant role in the creation of a new great power, but justified the policy of expansion as a “struggle for faith”. In 1326, the Ottoman Turks seized the largest trade city of Bursa, the most important transit point for trade between the West and the East. Then Nikea and Nicomedia fell. Lands seized from the Byzantines, the sultans handed out to nobles and distinguished soldiers in the quality of the Timar - conditional possessions obtained for the performance of service (estates). Gradually, the Timar system became the basis of the socio-economic and military administrative structure of the Ottoman Power. Under Sultan Orhan I (reigned from 1326 to 1359 years) and his son Murad I (reigned from 1359 to 1389 years) important military reforms were carried out: the irregular cavalry was reorganized - the cavalry and infantry troops summoned from the Turkish farmers were created. The soldiers of the cavalry and infantry in peacetime were farmers, receiving benefits, during the war were required to come into the army. In addition, the army was supplemented by the militia of the peasants of the Christian faith and the corps of the Janissaries. The janissaries initially took captive Christian young men who were forced to convert to Islam, and from the first half of the 15 century, from the sons of Christian subjects of the Ottoman Sultan (as a special tax). Sipahs (a kind of noblemen of the Ottoman state, receiving income from the Timar) and the Janissaries became the core of the army of the Ottoman Sultans. In addition, divisions of gunners, gunsmiths, and other units were created in the army. As a result, a powerful power arose on the borders of Byzantium, which claimed dominance in the region.
It must be said that the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states themselves accelerated their fall. During this period, there was a sharp struggle between Byzantium, Genoa, Venice and the Balkan states. Often the fighting parties sought to enlist the military support of the Ottomans. Naturally, this greatly facilitated the expansion of the Ottoman state. The Ottomans received information about the ways, possible crossings, fortifications, strengths and weaknesses of enemy troops, the internal situation, etc. The Christians themselves helped cross the straits to Europe.
The Ottoman Turks achieved great success under Sultan Murad II (reigned in 1421–1444 and 1446–1451). Under him, the Turks recovered from the heavy defeat inflicted by Tamerlan in the Battle of Angora in 1402. In many ways, this defeat delayed the death of Constantinople for half a century. The Sultan crushed all the revolts of Muslim rulers. In June 1422, Murad besieged Constantinople, but could not take it. Said no fleet and powerful artillery. In 1430, the large city of Thessaloniki in northern Greece was captured, it belonged to the Venetians. Murad II won a number of important victories on the Balkan Peninsula, significantly expanding the possession of his power. So in October 1448, a battle took place on the Kosovo field. In this battle, the Ottoman army confronted the combined forces of Hungary and Wallachia under the command of the Hungarian general Janos Hunyadi. A fierce three-day battle ended with the complete victory of the Ottomans, and decided the fate of the Balkan peoples - for several centuries they were under the rule of the Turks. After this battle, the crusaders suffered a final defeat and no longer made serious attempts to recapture the Balkan Peninsula from the Ottoman Empire. The fate of Constantinople was decided, the Turks were able to solve the problem of capturing the ancient city. Byzantium itself no longer posed a great threat to the Turks, but a coalition of Christian countries, relying on Constantinople, could cause significant harm. The city was located almost in the middle of the Ottoman possessions, between Europe and Asia. The task of capturing Constantinople was decided by Sultan Mehmed II.
Byzantium. Byzantine power to the 15 century, lost most of their possessions. The whole XIV century was a period of political failures. For several decades it seemed that Serbia would be able to seize Constantinople. Various internal divisions were a constant source of civil wars. So the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus (who ruled from 1341 - 1391 years) was overthrown from the throne three times: with his father-in-law, his son and then his grandson. In 1347, an epidemic of "black death" swept, which claimed the lives of at least one third of the population of Byzantium. The Turks crossed over to Europe, and taking advantage of the turmoil of Byzantium and the Balkan countries, by the end of the century reached the Danube. As a result, Constantinople was surrounded almost from all sides. In 1357, the Turks seize Gallipoli, in 1361, Adrianople, who became the center of the Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. In 1368, Sultan Murad I obeyed Nissa (the country residence of the Byzantine emperors), and the Ottomans were already under the walls of Constantinople.
In addition, there was the problem of the struggle of supporters and opponents of the union with the Catholic Church. For many Byzantine politicians, it was obvious that without the help of the West, the empire could not survive. Back in 1274, the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII promised the Pope to seek reconciliation of the churches for political and economic reasons at the Lyon Cathedral. True, his son, the emperor Andronicus II, convened a council of the eastern church, which rejected the decisions of the Lyons cathedral. Then John Palaeologus traveled to Rome, where he solemnly accepted the faith according to the Latin rite, but received no help from the West. The supporters of the union with Rome were mostly politicians or belonged to the intellectual elite. The open enemies of the union were the lower clergy. John VIII Palaeologus (Byzantine emperor in 1425 — 1448) believed that Constantinople could be saved only with the help of the West, so he tried to conclude a union with the Roman church as quickly as possible. In the 1437 year, together with the patriarch and the delegation of Orthodox bishops, the Byzantine emperor went to Italy and spent there more than two years without a break, first in Ferrara, and then at the Ecumenical Council in Florence. At these meetings, both sides often came to a standstill and were ready to stop the negotiations. But John forbade his bishops to leave the council before making a compromise decision. In the end, the Orthodox delegation was forced to cede to Catholics on almost all major issues. 6 July 1439 was adopted by the Union of Florence, and the Eastern churches were reunited with Latin. True, the union turned out to be fragile; after a few years, many Orthodox hierarchs present at the Council began to openly deny their agreement with the union or to say that the decisions of the Council were caused by bribing and threats from Catholics. As a result, the union was rejected by most eastern churches. Most clergy and people did not accept this union. In 1444, the Pope was able to organize a crusade against the Turks (the Hungarians were the main force), but under Varna the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat.
Disputes about the union took place against the backdrop of the economic decline of the country. Constantinople of the end of 14 century was a sad city, a city of decay and destruction. The loss of Anatolia deprived the capital of the empire of almost all agricultural land. The population of Constantinople, which in the XII century numbered 1 million people (along with suburbs), fell to 100 thousand and continued to decline - by the time of the fall in the city was about 50 thousand people. The suburb on the Asian shore of the Bosporus was seized by the Turks. The outskirts of Per (Galata) on the other side of the Golden Horn, was a colony of Genoa. The city itself is surrounded by a wall in 14 miles, lost a number of quarters. In fact, the city turned into several separate settlements, separated by gardens, gardens, abandoned parks, ruins of buildings. Many had their walls, fences. The most populous villages were located on the banks of the Golden Horn. The richest quarter, adjacent to the Gulf, belonged to the Venetians. Nearby were the streets where people from the West lived - Florentines, Ankontses, Raguzians, Catalans and Jews. But, the piers and bazaars were still full of traders from Italian cities, Slavic and Muslim lands. Every year, pilgrims arrived in the city, mostly from Russia.
The last years before the fall of Constantinople, preparation for war
The last emperor of Byzantium was Constantine XI Palaeologus (who ruled in 1449 — 1453). Before becoming emperor he was a despot of Morea - the Greek province of Byzantium. Konstantin had a sound mind, was a good warrior and administrator. He had the gift of evoking the love and respect of his subjects, he was met in the capital with great joy. The short years of his rule, he was engaged in preparing Constantinople for a siege, seeking help and union in the West, and trying to calm the unrest caused by the union with the Roman Church. His first minister and commander-in-chief of the fleet he appointed Luca Notaras.
Sultan Mehmed II received the throne in 1451. He was a purposeful, energetic, intelligent man. Although initially it was thought to be a young man not glittering with talents, that was the impression from the first attempt at reigning in 1444 — 1446, when his father Murad II (he transferred the throne to his son to move away from public affairs) had to return to the throne to resolve the problems. This calmed the European rulers, all had enough problems. Already in winter 1451 — 1452. Sultan Mehmed ordered the construction of a fortress at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus to be launched, thereby cutting Constantinople from the Black Sea. The Byzantines were confused - this was the first step towards a siege. An embassy was sent with a reminder of the oath of the Sultan, who promised to preserve the territorial integrity of Byzantium. The embassy was left unanswered. Constantine sent messengers with gifts and asked not to touch the Greek villages located on the Bosphorus. Sultan ignored this mission. In June, a third embassy was sent — this time the Greeks were arrested and then beheaded. In fact, it was a declaration of war.
By the end of August 1452, the fortress of Bogaz-Kesen ("cutting the strait", or "cutting the throat") was built. Powerful guns were installed in the fortress and a ban was declared on passing the Bosphorus without inspection. Two Venetian ships were driven off and a third drowned. The crew was beheaded, and the captain was impaled - this dispelled all illusions about Mehmed's intentions. The actions of the Ottomans caused concern not only in Constantinople. Venetians in the Byzantine capital belonged to a whole quarter, they had significant privileges and benefits from trade. It was clear that after the fall of Constantinople, the Turks would not stop, under the blow were the possessions of Venice in Greece and the Aegean Sea. The problem was that the Venetians were stuck in the costly war in Lombardy. The union was impossible with Genoa, relations with Rome were strained. Yes, and with the Turks did not want to spoil relations - the Venetians conducted profitable trade in the Ottoman ports. Venice allowed Constantine to recruit soldiers and sailors in Crete. In general, Venice has maintained neutrality about the time of this war.
Genoa was in about the same situation. The fate of Pera and the Black Sea colonies caused concern. The Genoese, like the Venetians, showed flexibility. The government appealed to the Christian world to send help to Constantinople, but they themselves did not render such support. Private citizens have the right to act on their own. The administrations of Pera and the island of Chios were instructed to adhere to the Turkish policy as they deem most appropriate in this situation.
Raguzane - residents of the city of Raguz (Dubrovnik), as well as the Venetians, recently received confirmation from the Byzantine emperor of their privileges in Constantinople. But the Dubrovnik Republic did not want to put its trade in Ottoman ports at risk. In addition, the city-state fleet was small and did not want to risk it, if there is no broad coalition of Christian states.
Pope Nicholas V (head of the Catholic Church from 1447 to 1455 a year), receiving a letter from Constantine with the consent to accept the union, vainly sought the help of various sovereigns. There was no proper response to these calls. Only in October, 1452, the papal legate to the emperor Isidore brought with him 200 archers hired in Naples. The problem of the union with Rome again caused controversy and unrest in Constantinople. 12 December 1452 year in the temple of St. Sophia served a solemn liturgy in the presence of the emperor and the whole court. It mentioned the names of the Pope, the patriarch and officially proclaimed the provisions of the Union of Florence. Most citizens took this news with sullen passivity. Many hoped that if the city stood, it would be possible to reject the union. But by paying this price for help, the Byzantine elite miscalculated - ships with soldiers from Western states did not arrive to help the perishing empire.
At the end of January 1453, the issue of war was finally resolved. Turkish troops in Europe received orders to attack Byzantine cities in Thrace. Cities on the Black Sea surrendered without a fight and avoided pogrom. Some cities on the coast of the Sea of Marmara tried to defend themselves, and were destroyed. Part of the army invaded the Peloponnese and attacked the brothers of Emperor Constantine, so that they could not come to the aid of the capital. Sultan took into account the fact that a number of previous attempts to take Constantinople (by his predecessors) failed due to the lack of a fleet. The Byzantines had the opportunity by sea to bring reinforcements and supplies. In March, in Gallipoli, all the ships at the disposal of the Turks. Some ships were new, built in the last few months. In the Turkish fleet there were 6 triremes (two-masted sailing-rowing ships, one paddle was held by three rowers), 10 birem (single-masted ship, where there were two rowers on one paddle), 15 galleys, near 75 fust (light, high-speed vessels), 20 parandarius (heavy transport barges) and the mass of small sailing boats, boats. At the head of the Turkish fleet was Suleiman Baltoglu. Rowers and sailors were prisoners, criminals, slaves and part of the volunteers. In late March, the Turkish fleet passed through the Dardanelles to the Sea of Marmara, causing terror among the Greeks and Italians. This was another blow to the Byzantine elite, they did not expect that the Turks would prepare such a significant naval forces and be able to block the city from the sea.
At the same time in Thrace they were preparing an army. Throughout the winter, gunsmiths tirelessly made various kinds weapon, the engineers created the battering and stone-throwing machines. A powerful shock fist was assembled from about 100 thousand people. Of these, 80 thousand were regular troops - cavalry and infantry, janissaries (12 thousand). Approximately 20-25 thousand consisted of irregular troops - the militia, bashi-bazouks (irregular cavalry, "crazy" did not receive a salary and "awarded" looting), rear units. Sultan paid much attention to artillery - the Hungarian master Urban cast several powerful cannons capable of sinking ships (with the help of one of them sank the Venetian ship) and destroy powerful fortifications. The largest of them were carrying 60 bulls, and a team of several hundred people was assigned to it. The gun fired nuclei weighing about 1200 pounds (about 500 kg). During March, the huge army of the Sultan began to gradually move to the Bosphorus. On April 5, Mehmed II himself arrived under the walls of Constantinople. The morale of the army was high, everyone believed in success and hoped for rich booty.
People in Constantinople were suppressed. The huge Turkish fleet in the Sea of Marmara and strong enemy artillery only increased anxiety. People recalled the predictions of the fall of the empire and the coming of the Antichrist. But one cannot say that the threat has deprived all people of the will to resist. Throughout the winter, men and women, encouraged by the emperor, worked to clear the moats and fortify the walls. A fund was created for unforeseen expenses - the emperor, churches, monasteries and private individuals made investments in it. It should be noted that the problem was not the availability of money, but the lack of the necessary number of people, weapons (special firearms), the problem of food. All weapons collected in one place, if necessary, distribute to the most threatened areas.
Hope for external assistance was not. Support Byzantium had only some individuals. Thus, the Venetian colony in Constantinople offered its help to the emperor. Two captains of Venetian ships returning from the Black Sea - Gabriele Trevisano and Alvizo Diedo, gave an oath to participate in the fight. In total, the fleet defending Constantinople consisted of 26 ships: 10 of which belonged to the Byzantines proper, 5 to the Venetians, 5 to the Genoese, 3 to the Cretans, 1 arrived from Catalonia, 1 from Ancona and 1 from Provence. Several noble Genoese arrived to fight for the Christian faith. For example, a volunteer from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani Longo brought 700 soldiers with him. Giustiniani was known as an experienced military, so he was appointed emperor commander of the defense of the land walls. In general, the Byzantine emperor, not including the Allies, had about 5-7 thousands of warriors. It should be noted that part of the population of the city left Constantinople before the siege began. Part of the Genoese - the colony of Per and the Venetians remained neutral. On the night of February 26, seven ships - 1 from Venice and 6 from Crete left the Golden Horn, taking 700 to the Italians.
To be continued ...
“The death of the empire. Byzantine Lesson " - a journalistic film of the viceroy of the Moscow Sretensky Monastery, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov). The premiere took place on the state channel "Russia" 30 January 2008. The presenter, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov), gives his first-person version of the collapse of the Byzantine Empire.
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