Law enforcers of the Russian Empire. Part of 1
Historical the roots of the domestic law enforcement system are lost in the mists of time. Much has been done during the time of Peter the Great and Catherine II. However, in general, the state structure and composition of the police forces was determined by the beginning of the XIX century. In the 1860s - 1880s, drastic changes were carried out as part of a large-scale reform of the entire system of the rule of law of the empire. Further changes, as a rule, did not affect the prevailing foundations and the control loop, in general, of the entire law enforcement system in the country.
Empire police forces
In the Russian Empire, at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, a rather complicated law enforcement system functioned, in some cases duplicating certain law enforcement functions and tasks by various structures and services included in it. Next will be discussed, mainly on the general police forces that were under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Police Department.
At the same time, such important law enforcement structures as the gendarmerie and security departments, as well as 9 ministries and departments, which included paramilitary units that performed certain police functions, remain largely outside the scope of publication. For example, the Ministry of Industry and Trade was in charge of mining and police guards and factory police. The Ministry of Finance consisted of a corps of border guards, customs units, squadrons. The Ministry of Justice subordinated to the prison and convoy guards, bailiffs. There were similar units in other ministries.
There was a palace police force in the form of a separate law enforcement service, which provided security and law and order in the imperial residences and in the territories adjacent to them. They also ensured the security and safety of persons of the imperial family during their walks, trips to rest and in all other cases according to a special instruction. The palace police officers worked closely with the special services - the III Division of the Imperial Chancellery until its abolition in December 1883 of the year. During the formation of the palace police in 1861, its number was 30 police. In 1905, there was already a 144 person in the palace police station. Their functions are also constantly expanding. Thus, the duty of the palace police officers included the guarding and escorting of “persons close to the court”, as well as checking all those who had access to the palaces and protected areas. And this is despite the fact that from 1881, the security functions were also carried by the Tsar’s own guard, guards infantry squad of a convoy, a separate railway military unit and other palace security and guard structures. The palace police was abolished in April 1917 by a decree of the Provisional Government.
General police forces were subordinated to the Ministry of Police first, and then were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Until the middle of the XIX century, all the changes in the law enforcement system were associated with the search for the most acceptable and responding to the challenges of the time the police structure of the empire. As often happened, all the reforms and innovations began with the capital. In October 1866, the capital of the empire was divided into 38 police stations instead of the previous 58 quarters. At the same time, the principle of dividing the city into 12 parts has been preserved. Later, police stations were established in all cities of the empire. All redundant police structures and positions were abolished in order to reduce government spending. At the same time, for the first time, a reserve of the police was created as a training unit for the initial training of newly enlisted police officers.
In December of the same year, a police guard consisting of police guards and police officers was created to carry patrols. At the same time, the composition of the police officers was allowed to be recruited from among those who wished to voluntarily serve voluntarily. Since then, the way to the police has been open not only for retired army lower ranks, but also for all others who are physically fit and capable of carrying out police service. The estate states were taken into account, but they were not an obstacle for entering the police service. All newcomers were required to undergo compulsory basic police training at a police reserve school.
During the period under review, the empire's police forces were supplemented with new services and divisions, which was accompanied by an increase in the total number of police forces. From 1880, security departments, police services, criminal investigation departments, address desks and fire brigades have been subordinate to the police department. The structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in addition to the listed structures, included specialized police units (river, fairground, port, railway) and police guards. Had the police and their overseas service.
Local police structures, as a rule, were subordinate to the provincial police chief. Police officers from the military usually had the rank of colonel or major general, but were registered in the police service and wore police uniform. Civil officials in such positions were in the ranks of state or real state councilor, which corresponded to the V or IV classes according to the Table of Ranks.
However, in a number of large cities, the mayor supervised the police. The post of mayor was usually personally appointed by the emperor to military officials and civilian officials in the rank of general or state councilor. In both capitals, these posts were often occupied by the retinue ranks from the adjutant general of the emperor.
In general, the reform of the law enforcement system of the empire carried out in the second half of the XIX century led to the formation of a new police structure. Changes have affected many parties to the police service, among which are the following:
- Unified county police departments headed by police officers were created;
- the principles of recruiting the police were changed: instead of the lower army ranks unfit for military service and sent to serve in the police as part of military service, after the military reform of 1874 of the year that abolished the recruitment, the principle of free hiring was introduced to the police by contact;
- salaries have been increased, pensions, retirement awards and other benefits have been introduced for the greater attractiveness of volunteer police service;
- The functions of the police were revised, some of which were transferred to other law enforcement agencies. Thus, investigative actions were assigned to judicial investigators, and economic functions, improvement of cities, food business, control over the condition of roads were transferred to the jurisdiction of zemstvos and city self-government bodies;
- it was prescribed to have a police reserve (training teams) in the counties;
- the lower level of the police force was strengthened by introducing the posts of district police officers in the districts, while in the cities the number of police guards was increased. By the way, the new instruction to the police guards, approved by the Minister of the Interior, even imposed some auxiliary police functions on the janitors. In addition to the caretakers, among the informants and volunteer police assistants there were quite a lot of doormen, cab drivers, waiters and other people, as a rule, from the service sector.
The service of law enforcement and peace in the empire
At one time, Emperor Paul I determined that the police forces belong to the civil department. Prior to that, the police were usually staffed from officers and served the lower ranks. Therefore, for a long time, a mixed system of completing police units and services was maintained in the empire, both at the expense of the military and by way of voluntary recruitment to civilian positions.
According to the Service Charter, as defined by the government (1896), when entering the public service, the level of knowledge of the candidate was taken into account and, if necessary, checked. If special knowledge was required, they were subjected to special testing and testing of abilities for up to 4 months. The same document specifically determined that the Russian youth aged from 10 to 18 should be trained and educated in Russian educational institutions. Homeschooling was allowed “with passing the tests in the gymnasium,” as the exams were then called. Otherwise, the young men, despite the origin and class privileges, were deprived of the right to enter the civil service in the Russian Empire.
Police service was governed by the civil law of the empire. All provisions on civilian civil service extended to police officers, although according to the already established tradition, military ranks could also join the police force. Such conditions for entering the service were not in all law enforcement structures of the empire. For example, in 1867, only army military officers with education and service in the ranks of at least 5 years could qualify for service in the Gendarme Corps. Later, the service qualification was reduced to 2's. At the same time, it was necessary to pass preliminary tests and pass examinations at the headquarters of the gendarmes corps. Despite the well-known negative attitude towards the "blue uniforms" in society and among the troops, those who wanted to transfer from the army to gendarmes were always more than required. As for the vacancies of the lower gendarme ranks, they were replaced by exceptionally retired non-commissioned officers who were recruited for extra military service with the obligation to serve in the gendarmerie for at least 5 years. In 1880, the Separate corps of gendarmes with a staff of officers in 520 and 6187 of the lower ranks became part of the Imperial Interior Ministry. In addition to political investigation, the gendarmes were charged with the fight against criminal crime. A special task was to maintain law and order in transport.
In spite of the fact that free recruitment for posts in the police became possible, not everybody was taken to the service. So, even those who wanted to act as a guard over the guard had to meet the following requirements:
• be 25 - 40 years of age;
• good health and physique;
• height not less than 2 arshins 6 inches (from 169 cm);
• predominantly Russian, Orthodox (Jews were not accepted at all);
• certificate of completion of the course of a three-year city or county school;
• in the course of conversations, the general development was assessed, the ability to correctly and logically express one's thoughts orally and on paper (a written test was conducted).
A prerequisite was positive information about the candidate from the police at the place of residence, and for retired lower military officials - certification or recommendation from the regiment. So getting a personal number breastplate or a policeman token in the Russian Empire was not easy.
Criminal investigation is risky
Lawyer T.L. In his doctoral thesis on the organization of investigation in Russia, Matienko singles out 4 for the main historical stage of development of detective work, beginning in the 9th century. And researcher Lyadov A.O. 3 calls such a period from the 15th century onwards. It is considered that in the initial period only separate functions of criminal prosecution were carried out in the territories of the Russian principalities. With the advent of the Rogue Order (1539), and then the Detective Order (1687), this work was streamlined, however, as before, it was carried out within the framework of other functions of power. Of course, in those years only the rudiments of the future detective police of the empire were formed. The creation of a criminal investigation (later its synonym was the notion of “search”) in the form of a special type of law enforcement activity and an independent function of Russian criminal justice takes place in the second half of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. Objectively, this is confirmed by the following historical facts: 1) the police established state structures of detective units; 2) special regulations and norms regulating the function of the detective system were legally issued; 3) began to be actively developed and applied in the process of searching special methods and methods: covert surveillance, forensic investigations, undercover and other means of obtaining operational information.
In their publications, the officer of the modern Russian police R. Ochur notes that the police order from 31 December 1866 for the first time established a detective unit in the police staff of the capital of the empire as part of 22 people. Headed a new unit chief of the detective police. The operational staff included an 4 official for missions and 12 police guards. It was allowed within the established limits to take on the service of freelancers. However, for a city with a population of approximately 500 thousand, such a number of detectives was insufficient.
After 3 of the month, Metropolitan Chief of Police General F. Trepov submitted for approval the staff of the new unit in the city police. The staffing table determined the number of employees, their positions and grades, as well as their pay. The chief of the detective police was 1500 rubles in salaries and, in addition, 700 rubles in canteen money and 600 rubles in traveling expenses. The apartment was provided by the treasury. A rank was assigned to the post of class VI, equal to an army colonel.
Officials for assignments have established a salary of 1000 rubles and in addition: canteen money - 500 rubles, flat - 300 rubles and all 600 rubles for trips or for 150 rubles each. According to the position, the VII class rank was established, equal in the civil service to an out-door adviser or a military rank of lieutenant colonel. The clerk had the same salary and other equal cash payments (except for traveling). By the way, the same great rank. The police warden received 450 rubles in salary without any surcharges. They had the XIV (lowest) class rank, corresponding to the collegiate registrar in the civil service and an ensign in the army.
For comparison, we give the size of the annual officer's salary of the same period. Mentioned military ranks received: Army Colonel - 750 rubles, Lieutenant Colonel - 580 rubles, Ensign - 300 rubles. Police salaries at that time, as we see, were higher.
In addition, the cost estimate provided for 2200 rubles for office expenses and payment for civilian scribes. In addition, the chief of police of the capital had 8000 rubles for the operational expenses of the detectives.
In the detective unit accumulated all the information about crimes, criminals, suspicious persons and other operational-search materials. On their basis, reports were drawn up daily about all incidents in the capital and the measures taken. The clerk and his two assistants (senior and junior) were responsible for the detective office. Together with them, the official worked "adventure table". He kept a special journal about all the incidents and crimes in the capital, prepared daily reports and, if necessary, the most generous notes addressed to the king. For this position, the IX class rank was relied upon (a titular advisor or a staff captain). The annual salary was 400 rubles, canteens and flat money, respectively 200 and 150 rubles. It must be said that all this seemingly paper work required a good education, the ability to competently and in essence express the essence of what happened, the skill of independent work and certain analytical skills.
The creation of the metropolitan detective police marked the beginning of the formation of operational-search units in the entire system of the Empire’s Interior Ministry. On the ground, the situation on the creation of detective structures was delayed and existed in various forms. Thus, the detective police department of Baku for a long time existed only on paper. The staff was filled only in 1908 year after an inspection of the state of detective departments in the empire.
At the same time, during inspections, a high turnover rate among detectives was noted. The reasons were very different. For example, from the detective police department in Kiev, according to A.O. Lyadov, in 1906, dropped:
- for the transition to other positions - 3;
- dismissed on petitions - 5;
- dismissed in disciplinary procedure -16;
- died - 1;
- mutilated by criminals -1;
- subject to administrative penalties -11;
- fell ill with mental disorder due to overwork - 2.
Over the course of the year, 39 people dropped out or, on average, 3 left the police detective service a month. If we consider that during this period, the staff of the Kiev detective department was an 23 employee, then in the year its membership was almost twice updated.
Unfortunately, in the course of the reform of general criminal investigation in 1907-1908, after the well-known revolutionary events, serious mistakes were made that prevented the fight against criminal crime. Investigation departments established in the offices of the city police chiefs led to the decentralization of the entire investigation system. The inquiry and the search in the functionality of the detective departments were combined with damage to the investigation. In determining the staff of the investigation departments, the increase in crime in the empire was not taken into account, and as a result, the detectives did not have enough forces and means. The cities of the empire were divided into 4 ranks depending on the population. In total, 89 detective departments were created as part of police departments in provinces and major cities of the empire. The results of the work were also affected by the lack of a system of professional training of detective department officials. The situation was not straightened even by the special legal act adopted in 1908 on the organization of the detective unit and the Instruction for the ranks of detective departments of the year 1910.
Продолжение следует ...
Empire police forces
In the Russian Empire, at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, a rather complicated law enforcement system functioned, in some cases duplicating certain law enforcement functions and tasks by various structures and services included in it. Next will be discussed, mainly on the general police forces that were under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Police Department.
At the same time, such important law enforcement structures as the gendarmerie and security departments, as well as 9 ministries and departments, which included paramilitary units that performed certain police functions, remain largely outside the scope of publication. For example, the Ministry of Industry and Trade was in charge of mining and police guards and factory police. The Ministry of Finance consisted of a corps of border guards, customs units, squadrons. The Ministry of Justice subordinated to the prison and convoy guards, bailiffs. There were similar units in other ministries.
There was a palace police force in the form of a separate law enforcement service, which provided security and law and order in the imperial residences and in the territories adjacent to them. They also ensured the security and safety of persons of the imperial family during their walks, trips to rest and in all other cases according to a special instruction. The palace police officers worked closely with the special services - the III Division of the Imperial Chancellery until its abolition in December 1883 of the year. During the formation of the palace police in 1861, its number was 30 police. In 1905, there was already a 144 person in the palace police station. Their functions are also constantly expanding. Thus, the duty of the palace police officers included the guarding and escorting of “persons close to the court”, as well as checking all those who had access to the palaces and protected areas. And this is despite the fact that from 1881, the security functions were also carried by the Tsar’s own guard, guards infantry squad of a convoy, a separate railway military unit and other palace security and guard structures. The palace police was abolished in April 1917 by a decree of the Provisional Government.
General police forces were subordinated to the Ministry of Police first, and then were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Until the middle of the XIX century, all the changes in the law enforcement system were associated with the search for the most acceptable and responding to the challenges of the time the police structure of the empire. As often happened, all the reforms and innovations began with the capital. In October 1866, the capital of the empire was divided into 38 police stations instead of the previous 58 quarters. At the same time, the principle of dividing the city into 12 parts has been preserved. Later, police stations were established in all cities of the empire. All redundant police structures and positions were abolished in order to reduce government spending. At the same time, for the first time, a reserve of the police was created as a training unit for the initial training of newly enlisted police officers.
In December of the same year, a police guard consisting of police guards and police officers was created to carry patrols. At the same time, the composition of the police officers was allowed to be recruited from among those who wished to voluntarily serve voluntarily. Since then, the way to the police has been open not only for retired army lower ranks, but also for all others who are physically fit and capable of carrying out police service. The estate states were taken into account, but they were not an obstacle for entering the police service. All newcomers were required to undergo compulsory basic police training at a police reserve school.
During the period under review, the empire's police forces were supplemented with new services and divisions, which was accompanied by an increase in the total number of police forces. From 1880, security departments, police services, criminal investigation departments, address desks and fire brigades have been subordinate to the police department. The structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in addition to the listed structures, included specialized police units (river, fairground, port, railway) and police guards. Had the police and their overseas service.
Local police structures, as a rule, were subordinate to the provincial police chief. Police officers from the military usually had the rank of colonel or major general, but were registered in the police service and wore police uniform. Civil officials in such positions were in the ranks of state or real state councilor, which corresponded to the V or IV classes according to the Table of Ranks.
However, in a number of large cities, the mayor supervised the police. The post of mayor was usually personally appointed by the emperor to military officials and civilian officials in the rank of general or state councilor. In both capitals, these posts were often occupied by the retinue ranks from the adjutant general of the emperor.
In general, the reform of the law enforcement system of the empire carried out in the second half of the XIX century led to the formation of a new police structure. Changes have affected many parties to the police service, among which are the following:
- Unified county police departments headed by police officers were created;
- the principles of recruiting the police were changed: instead of the lower army ranks unfit for military service and sent to serve in the police as part of military service, after the military reform of 1874 of the year that abolished the recruitment, the principle of free hiring was introduced to the police by contact;
- salaries have been increased, pensions, retirement awards and other benefits have been introduced for the greater attractiveness of volunteer police service;
- The functions of the police were revised, some of which were transferred to other law enforcement agencies. Thus, investigative actions were assigned to judicial investigators, and economic functions, improvement of cities, food business, control over the condition of roads were transferred to the jurisdiction of zemstvos and city self-government bodies;
- it was prescribed to have a police reserve (training teams) in the counties;
- the lower level of the police force was strengthened by introducing the posts of district police officers in the districts, while in the cities the number of police guards was increased. By the way, the new instruction to the police guards, approved by the Minister of the Interior, even imposed some auxiliary police functions on the janitors. In addition to the caretakers, among the informants and volunteer police assistants there were quite a lot of doormen, cab drivers, waiters and other people, as a rule, from the service sector.
The service of law enforcement and peace in the empire
At one time, Emperor Paul I determined that the police forces belong to the civil department. Prior to that, the police were usually staffed from officers and served the lower ranks. Therefore, for a long time, a mixed system of completing police units and services was maintained in the empire, both at the expense of the military and by way of voluntary recruitment to civilian positions.
According to the Service Charter, as defined by the government (1896), when entering the public service, the level of knowledge of the candidate was taken into account and, if necessary, checked. If special knowledge was required, they were subjected to special testing and testing of abilities for up to 4 months. The same document specifically determined that the Russian youth aged from 10 to 18 should be trained and educated in Russian educational institutions. Homeschooling was allowed “with passing the tests in the gymnasium,” as the exams were then called. Otherwise, the young men, despite the origin and class privileges, were deprived of the right to enter the civil service in the Russian Empire.
Police service was governed by the civil law of the empire. All provisions on civilian civil service extended to police officers, although according to the already established tradition, military ranks could also join the police force. Such conditions for entering the service were not in all law enforcement structures of the empire. For example, in 1867, only army military officers with education and service in the ranks of at least 5 years could qualify for service in the Gendarme Corps. Later, the service qualification was reduced to 2's. At the same time, it was necessary to pass preliminary tests and pass examinations at the headquarters of the gendarmes corps. Despite the well-known negative attitude towards the "blue uniforms" in society and among the troops, those who wanted to transfer from the army to gendarmes were always more than required. As for the vacancies of the lower gendarme ranks, they were replaced by exceptionally retired non-commissioned officers who were recruited for extra military service with the obligation to serve in the gendarmerie for at least 5 years. In 1880, the Separate corps of gendarmes with a staff of officers in 520 and 6187 of the lower ranks became part of the Imperial Interior Ministry. In addition to political investigation, the gendarmes were charged with the fight against criminal crime. A special task was to maintain law and order in transport.
In spite of the fact that free recruitment for posts in the police became possible, not everybody was taken to the service. So, even those who wanted to act as a guard over the guard had to meet the following requirements:
• be 25 - 40 years of age;
• good health and physique;
• height not less than 2 arshins 6 inches (from 169 cm);
• predominantly Russian, Orthodox (Jews were not accepted at all);
• certificate of completion of the course of a three-year city or county school;
• in the course of conversations, the general development was assessed, the ability to correctly and logically express one's thoughts orally and on paper (a written test was conducted).
A prerequisite was positive information about the candidate from the police at the place of residence, and for retired lower military officials - certification or recommendation from the regiment. So getting a personal number breastplate or a policeman token in the Russian Empire was not easy.
Criminal investigation is risky
Lawyer T.L. In his doctoral thesis on the organization of investigation in Russia, Matienko singles out 4 for the main historical stage of development of detective work, beginning in the 9th century. And researcher Lyadov A.O. 3 calls such a period from the 15th century onwards. It is considered that in the initial period only separate functions of criminal prosecution were carried out in the territories of the Russian principalities. With the advent of the Rogue Order (1539), and then the Detective Order (1687), this work was streamlined, however, as before, it was carried out within the framework of other functions of power. Of course, in those years only the rudiments of the future detective police of the empire were formed. The creation of a criminal investigation (later its synonym was the notion of “search”) in the form of a special type of law enforcement activity and an independent function of Russian criminal justice takes place in the second half of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. Objectively, this is confirmed by the following historical facts: 1) the police established state structures of detective units; 2) special regulations and norms regulating the function of the detective system were legally issued; 3) began to be actively developed and applied in the process of searching special methods and methods: covert surveillance, forensic investigations, undercover and other means of obtaining operational information.
In their publications, the officer of the modern Russian police R. Ochur notes that the police order from 31 December 1866 for the first time established a detective unit in the police staff of the capital of the empire as part of 22 people. Headed a new unit chief of the detective police. The operational staff included an 4 official for missions and 12 police guards. It was allowed within the established limits to take on the service of freelancers. However, for a city with a population of approximately 500 thousand, such a number of detectives was insufficient.
After 3 of the month, Metropolitan Chief of Police General F. Trepov submitted for approval the staff of the new unit in the city police. The staffing table determined the number of employees, their positions and grades, as well as their pay. The chief of the detective police was 1500 rubles in salaries and, in addition, 700 rubles in canteen money and 600 rubles in traveling expenses. The apartment was provided by the treasury. A rank was assigned to the post of class VI, equal to an army colonel.
Officials for assignments have established a salary of 1000 rubles and in addition: canteen money - 500 rubles, flat - 300 rubles and all 600 rubles for trips or for 150 rubles each. According to the position, the VII class rank was established, equal in the civil service to an out-door adviser or a military rank of lieutenant colonel. The clerk had the same salary and other equal cash payments (except for traveling). By the way, the same great rank. The police warden received 450 rubles in salary without any surcharges. They had the XIV (lowest) class rank, corresponding to the collegiate registrar in the civil service and an ensign in the army.
For comparison, we give the size of the annual officer's salary of the same period. Mentioned military ranks received: Army Colonel - 750 rubles, Lieutenant Colonel - 580 rubles, Ensign - 300 rubles. Police salaries at that time, as we see, were higher.
In addition, the cost estimate provided for 2200 rubles for office expenses and payment for civilian scribes. In addition, the chief of police of the capital had 8000 rubles for the operational expenses of the detectives.
In the detective unit accumulated all the information about crimes, criminals, suspicious persons and other operational-search materials. On their basis, reports were drawn up daily about all incidents in the capital and the measures taken. The clerk and his two assistants (senior and junior) were responsible for the detective office. Together with them, the official worked "adventure table". He kept a special journal about all the incidents and crimes in the capital, prepared daily reports and, if necessary, the most generous notes addressed to the king. For this position, the IX class rank was relied upon (a titular advisor or a staff captain). The annual salary was 400 rubles, canteens and flat money, respectively 200 and 150 rubles. It must be said that all this seemingly paper work required a good education, the ability to competently and in essence express the essence of what happened, the skill of independent work and certain analytical skills.
The creation of the metropolitan detective police marked the beginning of the formation of operational-search units in the entire system of the Empire’s Interior Ministry. On the ground, the situation on the creation of detective structures was delayed and existed in various forms. Thus, the detective police department of Baku for a long time existed only on paper. The staff was filled only in 1908 year after an inspection of the state of detective departments in the empire.
At the same time, during inspections, a high turnover rate among detectives was noted. The reasons were very different. For example, from the detective police department in Kiev, according to A.O. Lyadov, in 1906, dropped:
- for the transition to other positions - 3;
- dismissed on petitions - 5;
- dismissed in disciplinary procedure -16;
- died - 1;
- mutilated by criminals -1;
- subject to administrative penalties -11;
- fell ill with mental disorder due to overwork - 2.
Over the course of the year, 39 people dropped out or, on average, 3 left the police detective service a month. If we consider that during this period, the staff of the Kiev detective department was an 23 employee, then in the year its membership was almost twice updated.
Unfortunately, in the course of the reform of general criminal investigation in 1907-1908, after the well-known revolutionary events, serious mistakes were made that prevented the fight against criminal crime. Investigation departments established in the offices of the city police chiefs led to the decentralization of the entire investigation system. The inquiry and the search in the functionality of the detective departments were combined with damage to the investigation. In determining the staff of the investigation departments, the increase in crime in the empire was not taken into account, and as a result, the detectives did not have enough forces and means. The cities of the empire were divided into 4 ranks depending on the population. In total, 89 detective departments were created as part of police departments in provinces and major cities of the empire. The results of the work were also affected by the lack of a system of professional training of detective department officials. The situation was not straightened even by the special legal act adopted in 1908 on the organization of the detective unit and the Instruction for the ranks of detective departments of the year 1910.
Продолжение следует ...
Information