Algeria and France: Divorce in French
19 March 2012 - a memorable date for Algeria and France - 50 years since the end of a long and bloody war. 18 March In 1962, in the French city of Evian-les-Bains on the shores of Lake Geneva, a cease-fire agreement (with 19 March) was signed between France and the Liberation Front of Algeria. In addition, the agreement provided for a referendum in Algeria on the issue of independence and recognition of it by France if approved by the Algerians.
The war lasted from 1954 to 1962 years and became one of the most violent anti-colonial wars. The Algerian War was one of the most important events in stories France of the second half of the 20 century, becoming the main cause of the fall of the Fourth Republic, two putsches in the army and the emergence of the secret ultranationalist organization Secret Army Organization (OAS). Organization de l'armée secrète. This organization proclaimed that "Algeria belongs to France - it will continue to do so", and by means of terror, tried to force Paris to renounce recognition of the independence of Algeria. The apogee of this organization’s activity was the assassination of 22 August 1962 by President Charles de Gaulle. The fact that the Algerian territory was an integral part of France, and therefore a large part of French society initially perceived the events in Algeria as a rebellion and a threat to the territorial integrity of the country, added an additional sharpness to the conflict "Which were part of European civilization). Until now, the events of 1954 — 1962 were perceived in France very ambiguously, for example, only in 1999, the National Assembly officially recognized the fighting in Algeria as a “war” (until that time, the term “restoration of public order” was used). Now part of the French right movement believes that the people who fought for “restoring order” in Algeria were right.
This war was characterized by guerrilla actions and the conduct of anti-partisan operations, urban terrorism, the struggle of various Algerian groups not only with the French, but also among themselves. Both sides committed massacres. In addition, there was a significant split in French society.
Background to the conflict
Algeria has been part of the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 16 century, in 1711 it became an independent military (piracy) republic. Internal history was marked by constant bloody coups, and foreign policy by pirate raids and slave trade. After the defeat of Napoleon (during the wars with the French genius, significant naval forces of the advanced European powers were constantly in the Mediterranean), the Algerians again resumed their raids. Their activities were so active that even the United States and Britain conducted military operations to neutralize the pirates. In 1827, the French tried to block the coast of Algeria, but the idea failed. Then the French government decided to get rid of the problem in a radical way - to conquer Algeria. Paris equipped a real armada - from 100 military and 357 transport ships, which transported the expeditionary force to 35 thousand people. The French seized the city of Algeria, and then other coastal cities. But it was more difficult to capture the internal areas, in order to solve this problem the French command applied the principle of "divide and conquer." We first agreed with the nationalist movement in Kabylie and focused on the destruction of pro-Ottoman forces. By 1837, after the capture of Constantine, the pro-Ottoman forces were crushed and the French turned their attention to the nationalists. Finally, Algeria was captured by the year 1847. Since 1848, Algeria has been declared part of France, divided into departments headed by prefects and the French governor-general. The territory of Algeria was divided into three overseas departments - Algeria, Oran and Constantine. Later there was a series of uprisings, but the French successfully crushed them.
Begins active colonization of Algeria. Moreover, the French among the colonists were not the majority - among them were the Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese and Maltese. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian 1870-1871 war, many Frenchmen from the Alsace and Lorraine provinces came to Algeria, which were handed over to Germany. Russian White emigres who fled from Russia during the Civil War also moved to Algeria. Joined the Franco-Algerian group and the Jewish community of Algeria. The French administration encouraged the “Europeanization” of Algeria, for this a network of educational and cultural institutions was created that served all spheres of life for new migrants and allowed them to rather quickly unite into a single French-speaking Christian ethno-cultural community. Thanks to a higher cultural, educational level, state support and business activity, the French-Algerians quickly achieved a higher level of well-being than the indigenous population. And, despite a small share (approximately 15% of the population in 1930's, more than 1 million people), they dominated the main aspects of Algerian society, becoming the cultural, economic, and administrative elite of the country. During this period, the national economy of the country increased markedly, and the level of well-being of the local Muslim population rose.
Under the Code of Conduct of 1865, Algerians remained subject to Muslim legislation, but could be recruited into the French armed forces, and they also had the right to obtain French citizenship. But the procedure for obtaining French citizenship by the Muslim population of Algeria was very complicated, so by the middle of the 20 century only about 13% of the indigenous population of Algeria had it, and the rest had French Union citizenship and were not eligible to hold high government posts and serve in a number of government institutions. The French authorities retained the traditional institution of the elders, who maintained their authority at the local level and were therefore quite loyal. In the French armed forces there were Algerian units - tyrals, gumas, camps, spags. They fought as part of the French army in the First and Second World Wars, and then in Indochina.
After the First World War in Algeria, some intellectuals began to talk about autonomy and self-government. In 1926, the national-revolutionary movement "North African Star" was established, which raised questions of a socio-economic nature (improving working conditions, wage growth, etc.). In 1938, the Algerian People's Union was created, later renamed the Manifesto of the Algerian People (demand for independence), and in 1946 it was called the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto. The requirements of autonomy or independence are more widespread. In May 1945, a nationalist demonstration grew into riots, during which up to hundreds of Europeans and Jews were killed. Authorities responded with fierce terror using aviation, armored vehicles and artillery - according to various estimates, from 10 to 45 thousand Algerians were killed in a few months.
Nationalists are heading for an armed revolution. In 1946, the “Special Organization” (JI) was established - an extensive underground network of armed groups that operated in the cities. In 1949, the “Special Organization” was led by Ahmed bin Bell, who was a sergeant of the French army during the Second World War. Other similar organizations began to appear behind the CO. They collected funds, purchased weapons, ammunition, recruitment and training of future fighters. Since March 1947, the first partisan units have been formed in the mountainous regions of Algeria. In 1953, the Special Organization teamed up with the armed units of the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto. Armed groups obeyed the control center, which was located in Egypt and Tunisia. 1 November The 1954 of the Year was organized by the National Liberation Front (FNO), whose main task was to achieve the independence of Algeria by armed means. It included not only nationalists, but also representatives of the socialist movement, patriarchal-feudal groups. Already during the war, the socialist elements took up, and after Algeria gained independence, the FLN was transformed into a party (PFNO), which retains power until the present.
The main prerequisites for the war in Algeria were:
- The growth of the national liberation movement throughout the world after the First World War and the wave of revolutions after it. World War II dealt a blow to the old colonial system. There was a global reorganization of the entire world political system, and Algeria became part of this modernization.
- Anti-French policy of Britain, the United States and Spain in North Africa.
- Demographic explosion. Problems of socio-economic inequality. The period between 1885 — 1930 for years is considered the golden age of French Algeria (as well as the French Maghreb). Thanks to the general growth of welfare, the economy, achievements in the field of education and health, the preservation of the internal administrative and cultural autonomy of Muslims, the cessation of internal strife, the Islamic population has entered a phase of a population explosion. The Muslim population increased from 3 million in the mid-19th century to 9 million in the mid-20th century. In addition, due to the growing population, there was an acute shortage of agricultural land, most of which was controlled by large European plantations, which led to increased competition for other limited resources of the territory.
- The presence of the passionary mass of young men who received combat experience during the Second World War. Tens of thousands of inhabitants of the French colonies of Africa fought in North Africa, Italy and France itself. As a result, the aureole of “white gentlemen” lost much weight, later these soldiers and sergeants formed the backbone of the anti-colonial armies, partisan detachments, legal and illegal patriotic, nationalist organizations.
Milestones of the war
- On the night of November 1, 1954, a rebel detachment attacked a number of French installations in Algeria. So the war began, which, according to various estimates, claimed the lives of 18-35 thousand French soldiers, 15-150 thousand harki (Algerian Muslims - Arabs and Berbers, who acted on the French side during the war), 300 thousand - 1,5 million Algerians. In addition, hundreds of thousands of people have become refugees.
It must be said that the leaders of the resistance chose an opportune moment to strike - over the past decade and a half, France has experienced the bitterness of the humiliating rout and occupation of 1940, the unpopular colonial war in Indochina and the defeat in Vietnam. The most combat-ready troops have not yet been evacuated from Southeast Asia. But at the same time, the military forces of the Front for National Liberation were extremely insignificant - initially only a few hundred fighters, so the war did not become open, but partisan. Initially, the fighting was not widespread. The French threw additional forces, and the rebels were not enough to organize significant military operations and to clear the territory of Algeria from the "invaders". The first major massacre occurred only in August 1955 of the year - the rebels in the city of Philippeville massacred a few dozen people, including Europeans, in response, the army and French Algerian militia killed hundreds (or thousands) of Muslims.
- The situation changed in favor of the rebels in 1956, when Morocco and Tunisia gained independence, training camps and rear bases were established there. The Algerian rebels adhered to the tactic of “small war” - attacking convoys, small enemy units, fortifications, posts, destroyed communication lines, bridges, terrorized the population for collaborating with the French (for example, prohibited sending children to French schools, introducing sharia norms).
The French applied quadrilage tactics - Algeria was divided into squares, a certain subunit was responsible for each (often local militiamen), and the elite units - the Foreign Legion, paratroopers carried out counter-guerrilla actions throughout the territory. Helicopters were widely used for transporting compounds, which sharply increased their mobility. At the same time, the French launched a fairly successful information campaign. Special administrative sections were engaged in the conquest of the "hearts and minds" of the Algerians, they came into contact with the inhabitants of remote areas, urged them to preserve the loyalty of France. Muslims were recruited into the squads of Kharka, who defended the village from the rebels. Great work was carried out by the French special services, they were able to provoke an internal conflict in the FLN, throwing information about the "betrayal" of a number of commanders and leaders of the movement.
In 1956, the insurgents launched a campaign of urban terrorism. Almost every day bombs exploded, Franco-Algerians died, colonists and French responded with acts of retaliation, and innocent people often suffered. The rebels solved two tasks: they attracted the attention of the world community and caused the hatred of Muslims towards the French.
In the 1956-1957 years, the French, in order to stop the insurgents from passing through the border, by stopping the flow of weapons and ammunition, created fortified lines at the borders with Tunisia and Morocco (minefields, barbed wire, electronic sensors, etc.). As a result, in the first half of 1958, the insurgents suffered heavy losses on them, losing the ability to deploy significant forces from Tunisia and Morocco, where militant training camps were established.
- In 1957, the 10 th parachute division was introduced into the city of Algeria, its commander, General Jacques Massuu, received emergency powers. The “sweep” of the city began. The military often used torture, as a result, soon all the channels of the rebels were identified, the connection of the city with the countryside was interrupted. Under a similar scheme, "cleared out" and other cities. The operation of the French military was effective - the main rebel forces in the cities were crushed, but the French and world community was greatly outraged.
- The political-diplomatic front has become more successful for the rebels. At the beginning of 1958, the French Air Force attacked the territory of independent Tunisia. According to intelligence information in one of the villages there was a large armory, in addition, in the area near the village of Sakiet-Sidi-Yusef, two were shot down and one French Air Force plane was damaged. As a result of the strike, dozens of civilians were killed, an international scandal broke out - the question was proposed for discussion at the UN Security Council. London and Washington offered their mediation services. It is clear that for this they wanted to get access to French Africa. The French head of government, Felix Gaillard d'Emé, was offered to create a defensive alliance of France, Britain, and the United States in North Africa. When the prime minister brought this issue to parliament, the internal political crisis began, the right-wing quite reasonably decided that it was interference in the internal affairs of France. The consent of the government with external intervention will be a betrayal of the national interests of France. In April, the government resigned.
The Franco-Algerian people closely followed the situation in France and indignantly received news from the metropolis. In May, it was reported that the new Prime Minister Pierre Pflimlin could begin negotiations with the rebels. At the same time, it was reported the murder of captured French soldiers. French Algeria and the military "exploded" - the demonstrations escalated into riots, a public security committee was created, led by General Raoul Salana (he commanded French troops in Indochina in the 1952-1953 years). The committee demanded that Charles de Gaulle, the hero of the Second World War, be appointed head of government, otherwise they promised to land troops in Paris. The right believed that the national hero of France will not surrender Algeria. The fourth republic, the so-called period of French history from 1946 to 1958, has fallen.
Raul Salan.
De Gaulle 1 Jun led the government and made a trip to Algeria. He was pessimistic, although he did not inform about it, so as not to aggravate the situation. The general clearly expressed his position in an interview with Alan Payrefit 4 of May 1962: “Napoleon said that in love the only possible victory was escape. Likewise, the only possible victory in the decolonization process is withdrawal. ”
General de Gaulle in Tiaret (Oran).
- In September, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria, which was located in Tunisia, was proclaimed. Militarily, the rebels were defeated, the reinforced lines at the borders were powerful - the flow of reinforcements and weapons dried up. Inside Algeria, the authorities defeated upwards so that the rebels could not recruit soldiers and get food, in some areas they created "regrouping camps" (Algerians called them concentration camps). An attempt to unleash the terror in France itself was foiled. De Gaulle announced the plan for the 5-year economic development of Algeria, the idea of amnesty for those rebels who voluntarily lay down their arms.
- In February, an 1959 operation began on the liquidation of the insurgency in rural areas, it lasted until the spring of 1960. The operation was led by General Maurice Schalle. The Rebels suffered another powerful blow: local forces blocked the chosen area, and the elite units carried out a “sweep” operation. As a result, the rebel command was forced to disperse forces to the level of a squad-platoon (they used to operate with companies and battalions). The French destroyed the entire top commanders of the rebels in Algeria and up to half of the command personnel. Militarily, the rebels were doomed. But the French public is tired of wars.
- In September 1959, the head of the French government delivered a speech in which he recognized for the first time the right of Algerians to self-determination. This caused the anger of the French-Algerians and the military. A group of young people organized a coup in the city of Algeria, which was quickly suppressed (“week of the barricades”). They began to realize that they were mistaken with the candidacy of the general.
- 1960 year became the "year of Africa" - 17 states of the African continent gained independence. In the summer, the first negotiations took place between the French authorities and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic. De Gaulle announced the possibility of changing the status of Algeria. In December, the Secret Army Organization (CAO) was created in Spain, its founder was student leader Pierre Lagayard (he led the far right during the "barricade week" in 1960), former officers Raoul Salano, Jean-Jacques Suzini, members of the French army, French foreign legion, participants of the Indochinese war.
- In January, a referendum was held on 1961, and 75% of respondents were in favor of granting independence to Algeria. 21-26 April, the “Generals Puts” occurred - Generals Andre Zeller, Maurice Schalle, Raoul Salan, Edomond Jouaux attempted to remove de Gaulle from his post as head of government and save Algeria for France. But they were not supported by a significant part of the army and the French people; moreover, the rebels could not coordinate their actions properly, and as a result the uprising was crushed.
From left to right: French generals Andre Zeller, Edmond Zhuo, Raoul Salan and Maurice Schalle at the house of the Government of Algeria (Algeria, 23 April 1961).
- In the 1961, the CAO launched terror - the French began to kill the French. Hundreds of people were killed, thousands of assassinations were committed. Only de Gaulle attempted more than a dozen times.
- Negotiations between Paris and the FLN continued in the spring of 1961, and took place in the resort town of Evian-les-Bains. 18 March 1962 was approved by the Evian agreements, which ended the war and opened the way to independence for Algeria. At the April referendum, 91% of French citizens expressed support for these agreements.
After the official end of the war several more high-profile events occurred. Thus, the policy of the National Liberation Front in relation to the French-Algerians was characterized by the slogan "Suitcase or coffin". Although the FLN promised Paris, neither individuals nor groups that served Paris would be subject to repression. Approximately 1 million people escaped from Algeria and for good reason. 5 July 1962, on the day of the official proclamation of the independence of Algeria, a crowd of armed people arrived in the city of Oran, the gangsters began to torture and kill Europeans (approximately 3 thousand people were missing). Tens of thousands of Harki had to flee Algeria - the winners organized a series of attacks on Muslim soldiers in France, killing from 15 to 150 thousand people.
The war lasted from 1954 to 1962 years and became one of the most violent anti-colonial wars. The Algerian War was one of the most important events in stories France of the second half of the 20 century, becoming the main cause of the fall of the Fourth Republic, two putsches in the army and the emergence of the secret ultranationalist organization Secret Army Organization (OAS). Organization de l'armée secrète. This organization proclaimed that "Algeria belongs to France - it will continue to do so", and by means of terror, tried to force Paris to renounce recognition of the independence of Algeria. The apogee of this organization’s activity was the assassination of 22 August 1962 by President Charles de Gaulle. The fact that the Algerian territory was an integral part of France, and therefore a large part of French society initially perceived the events in Algeria as a rebellion and a threat to the territorial integrity of the country, added an additional sharpness to the conflict "Which were part of European civilization). Until now, the events of 1954 — 1962 were perceived in France very ambiguously, for example, only in 1999, the National Assembly officially recognized the fighting in Algeria as a “war” (until that time, the term “restoration of public order” was used). Now part of the French right movement believes that the people who fought for “restoring order” in Algeria were right.
This war was characterized by guerrilla actions and the conduct of anti-partisan operations, urban terrorism, the struggle of various Algerian groups not only with the French, but also among themselves. Both sides committed massacres. In addition, there was a significant split in French society.
Background to the conflict
Algeria has been part of the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 16 century, in 1711 it became an independent military (piracy) republic. Internal history was marked by constant bloody coups, and foreign policy by pirate raids and slave trade. After the defeat of Napoleon (during the wars with the French genius, significant naval forces of the advanced European powers were constantly in the Mediterranean), the Algerians again resumed their raids. Their activities were so active that even the United States and Britain conducted military operations to neutralize the pirates. In 1827, the French tried to block the coast of Algeria, but the idea failed. Then the French government decided to get rid of the problem in a radical way - to conquer Algeria. Paris equipped a real armada - from 100 military and 357 transport ships, which transported the expeditionary force to 35 thousand people. The French seized the city of Algeria, and then other coastal cities. But it was more difficult to capture the internal areas, in order to solve this problem the French command applied the principle of "divide and conquer." We first agreed with the nationalist movement in Kabylie and focused on the destruction of pro-Ottoman forces. By 1837, after the capture of Constantine, the pro-Ottoman forces were crushed and the French turned their attention to the nationalists. Finally, Algeria was captured by the year 1847. Since 1848, Algeria has been declared part of France, divided into departments headed by prefects and the French governor-general. The territory of Algeria was divided into three overseas departments - Algeria, Oran and Constantine. Later there was a series of uprisings, but the French successfully crushed them.
Begins active colonization of Algeria. Moreover, the French among the colonists were not the majority - among them were the Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese and Maltese. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian 1870-1871 war, many Frenchmen from the Alsace and Lorraine provinces came to Algeria, which were handed over to Germany. Russian White emigres who fled from Russia during the Civil War also moved to Algeria. Joined the Franco-Algerian group and the Jewish community of Algeria. The French administration encouraged the “Europeanization” of Algeria, for this a network of educational and cultural institutions was created that served all spheres of life for new migrants and allowed them to rather quickly unite into a single French-speaking Christian ethno-cultural community. Thanks to a higher cultural, educational level, state support and business activity, the French-Algerians quickly achieved a higher level of well-being than the indigenous population. And, despite a small share (approximately 15% of the population in 1930's, more than 1 million people), they dominated the main aspects of Algerian society, becoming the cultural, economic, and administrative elite of the country. During this period, the national economy of the country increased markedly, and the level of well-being of the local Muslim population rose.
Under the Code of Conduct of 1865, Algerians remained subject to Muslim legislation, but could be recruited into the French armed forces, and they also had the right to obtain French citizenship. But the procedure for obtaining French citizenship by the Muslim population of Algeria was very complicated, so by the middle of the 20 century only about 13% of the indigenous population of Algeria had it, and the rest had French Union citizenship and were not eligible to hold high government posts and serve in a number of government institutions. The French authorities retained the traditional institution of the elders, who maintained their authority at the local level and were therefore quite loyal. In the French armed forces there were Algerian units - tyrals, gumas, camps, spags. They fought as part of the French army in the First and Second World Wars, and then in Indochina.
After the First World War in Algeria, some intellectuals began to talk about autonomy and self-government. In 1926, the national-revolutionary movement "North African Star" was established, which raised questions of a socio-economic nature (improving working conditions, wage growth, etc.). In 1938, the Algerian People's Union was created, later renamed the Manifesto of the Algerian People (demand for independence), and in 1946 it was called the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto. The requirements of autonomy or independence are more widespread. In May 1945, a nationalist demonstration grew into riots, during which up to hundreds of Europeans and Jews were killed. Authorities responded with fierce terror using aviation, armored vehicles and artillery - according to various estimates, from 10 to 45 thousand Algerians were killed in a few months.
Nationalists are heading for an armed revolution. In 1946, the “Special Organization” (JI) was established - an extensive underground network of armed groups that operated in the cities. In 1949, the “Special Organization” was led by Ahmed bin Bell, who was a sergeant of the French army during the Second World War. Other similar organizations began to appear behind the CO. They collected funds, purchased weapons, ammunition, recruitment and training of future fighters. Since March 1947, the first partisan units have been formed in the mountainous regions of Algeria. In 1953, the Special Organization teamed up with the armed units of the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto. Armed groups obeyed the control center, which was located in Egypt and Tunisia. 1 November The 1954 of the Year was organized by the National Liberation Front (FNO), whose main task was to achieve the independence of Algeria by armed means. It included not only nationalists, but also representatives of the socialist movement, patriarchal-feudal groups. Already during the war, the socialist elements took up, and after Algeria gained independence, the FLN was transformed into a party (PFNO), which retains power until the present.
The main prerequisites for the war in Algeria were:
- The growth of the national liberation movement throughout the world after the First World War and the wave of revolutions after it. World War II dealt a blow to the old colonial system. There was a global reorganization of the entire world political system, and Algeria became part of this modernization.
- Anti-French policy of Britain, the United States and Spain in North Africa.
- Demographic explosion. Problems of socio-economic inequality. The period between 1885 — 1930 for years is considered the golden age of French Algeria (as well as the French Maghreb). Thanks to the general growth of welfare, the economy, achievements in the field of education and health, the preservation of the internal administrative and cultural autonomy of Muslims, the cessation of internal strife, the Islamic population has entered a phase of a population explosion. The Muslim population increased from 3 million in the mid-19th century to 9 million in the mid-20th century. In addition, due to the growing population, there was an acute shortage of agricultural land, most of which was controlled by large European plantations, which led to increased competition for other limited resources of the territory.
- The presence of the passionary mass of young men who received combat experience during the Second World War. Tens of thousands of inhabitants of the French colonies of Africa fought in North Africa, Italy and France itself. As a result, the aureole of “white gentlemen” lost much weight, later these soldiers and sergeants formed the backbone of the anti-colonial armies, partisan detachments, legal and illegal patriotic, nationalist organizations.
Milestones of the war
- On the night of November 1, 1954, a rebel detachment attacked a number of French installations in Algeria. So the war began, which, according to various estimates, claimed the lives of 18-35 thousand French soldiers, 15-150 thousand harki (Algerian Muslims - Arabs and Berbers, who acted on the French side during the war), 300 thousand - 1,5 million Algerians. In addition, hundreds of thousands of people have become refugees.
It must be said that the leaders of the resistance chose an opportune moment to strike - over the past decade and a half, France has experienced the bitterness of the humiliating rout and occupation of 1940, the unpopular colonial war in Indochina and the defeat in Vietnam. The most combat-ready troops have not yet been evacuated from Southeast Asia. But at the same time, the military forces of the Front for National Liberation were extremely insignificant - initially only a few hundred fighters, so the war did not become open, but partisan. Initially, the fighting was not widespread. The French threw additional forces, and the rebels were not enough to organize significant military operations and to clear the territory of Algeria from the "invaders". The first major massacre occurred only in August 1955 of the year - the rebels in the city of Philippeville massacred a few dozen people, including Europeans, in response, the army and French Algerian militia killed hundreds (or thousands) of Muslims.
- The situation changed in favor of the rebels in 1956, when Morocco and Tunisia gained independence, training camps and rear bases were established there. The Algerian rebels adhered to the tactic of “small war” - attacking convoys, small enemy units, fortifications, posts, destroyed communication lines, bridges, terrorized the population for collaborating with the French (for example, prohibited sending children to French schools, introducing sharia norms).
The French applied quadrilage tactics - Algeria was divided into squares, a certain subunit was responsible for each (often local militiamen), and the elite units - the Foreign Legion, paratroopers carried out counter-guerrilla actions throughout the territory. Helicopters were widely used for transporting compounds, which sharply increased their mobility. At the same time, the French launched a fairly successful information campaign. Special administrative sections were engaged in the conquest of the "hearts and minds" of the Algerians, they came into contact with the inhabitants of remote areas, urged them to preserve the loyalty of France. Muslims were recruited into the squads of Kharka, who defended the village from the rebels. Great work was carried out by the French special services, they were able to provoke an internal conflict in the FLN, throwing information about the "betrayal" of a number of commanders and leaders of the movement.
In 1956, the insurgents launched a campaign of urban terrorism. Almost every day bombs exploded, Franco-Algerians died, colonists and French responded with acts of retaliation, and innocent people often suffered. The rebels solved two tasks: they attracted the attention of the world community and caused the hatred of Muslims towards the French.
In the 1956-1957 years, the French, in order to stop the insurgents from passing through the border, by stopping the flow of weapons and ammunition, created fortified lines at the borders with Tunisia and Morocco (minefields, barbed wire, electronic sensors, etc.). As a result, in the first half of 1958, the insurgents suffered heavy losses on them, losing the ability to deploy significant forces from Tunisia and Morocco, where militant training camps were established.
- In 1957, the 10 th parachute division was introduced into the city of Algeria, its commander, General Jacques Massuu, received emergency powers. The “sweep” of the city began. The military often used torture, as a result, soon all the channels of the rebels were identified, the connection of the city with the countryside was interrupted. Under a similar scheme, "cleared out" and other cities. The operation of the French military was effective - the main rebel forces in the cities were crushed, but the French and world community was greatly outraged.
- The political-diplomatic front has become more successful for the rebels. At the beginning of 1958, the French Air Force attacked the territory of independent Tunisia. According to intelligence information in one of the villages there was a large armory, in addition, in the area near the village of Sakiet-Sidi-Yusef, two were shot down and one French Air Force plane was damaged. As a result of the strike, dozens of civilians were killed, an international scandal broke out - the question was proposed for discussion at the UN Security Council. London and Washington offered their mediation services. It is clear that for this they wanted to get access to French Africa. The French head of government, Felix Gaillard d'Emé, was offered to create a defensive alliance of France, Britain, and the United States in North Africa. When the prime minister brought this issue to parliament, the internal political crisis began, the right-wing quite reasonably decided that it was interference in the internal affairs of France. The consent of the government with external intervention will be a betrayal of the national interests of France. In April, the government resigned.
The Franco-Algerian people closely followed the situation in France and indignantly received news from the metropolis. In May, it was reported that the new Prime Minister Pierre Pflimlin could begin negotiations with the rebels. At the same time, it was reported the murder of captured French soldiers. French Algeria and the military "exploded" - the demonstrations escalated into riots, a public security committee was created, led by General Raoul Salana (he commanded French troops in Indochina in the 1952-1953 years). The committee demanded that Charles de Gaulle, the hero of the Second World War, be appointed head of government, otherwise they promised to land troops in Paris. The right believed that the national hero of France will not surrender Algeria. The fourth republic, the so-called period of French history from 1946 to 1958, has fallen.
Raul Salan.
De Gaulle 1 Jun led the government and made a trip to Algeria. He was pessimistic, although he did not inform about it, so as not to aggravate the situation. The general clearly expressed his position in an interview with Alan Payrefit 4 of May 1962: “Napoleon said that in love the only possible victory was escape. Likewise, the only possible victory in the decolonization process is withdrawal. ”
General de Gaulle in Tiaret (Oran).
- In September, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria, which was located in Tunisia, was proclaimed. Militarily, the rebels were defeated, the reinforced lines at the borders were powerful - the flow of reinforcements and weapons dried up. Inside Algeria, the authorities defeated upwards so that the rebels could not recruit soldiers and get food, in some areas they created "regrouping camps" (Algerians called them concentration camps). An attempt to unleash the terror in France itself was foiled. De Gaulle announced the plan for the 5-year economic development of Algeria, the idea of amnesty for those rebels who voluntarily lay down their arms.
- In February, an 1959 operation began on the liquidation of the insurgency in rural areas, it lasted until the spring of 1960. The operation was led by General Maurice Schalle. The Rebels suffered another powerful blow: local forces blocked the chosen area, and the elite units carried out a “sweep” operation. As a result, the rebel command was forced to disperse forces to the level of a squad-platoon (they used to operate with companies and battalions). The French destroyed the entire top commanders of the rebels in Algeria and up to half of the command personnel. Militarily, the rebels were doomed. But the French public is tired of wars.
- In September 1959, the head of the French government delivered a speech in which he recognized for the first time the right of Algerians to self-determination. This caused the anger of the French-Algerians and the military. A group of young people organized a coup in the city of Algeria, which was quickly suppressed (“week of the barricades”). They began to realize that they were mistaken with the candidacy of the general.
- 1960 year became the "year of Africa" - 17 states of the African continent gained independence. In the summer, the first negotiations took place between the French authorities and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic. De Gaulle announced the possibility of changing the status of Algeria. In December, the Secret Army Organization (CAO) was created in Spain, its founder was student leader Pierre Lagayard (he led the far right during the "barricade week" in 1960), former officers Raoul Salano, Jean-Jacques Suzini, members of the French army, French foreign legion, participants of the Indochinese war.
- In January, a referendum was held on 1961, and 75% of respondents were in favor of granting independence to Algeria. 21-26 April, the “Generals Puts” occurred - Generals Andre Zeller, Maurice Schalle, Raoul Salan, Edomond Jouaux attempted to remove de Gaulle from his post as head of government and save Algeria for France. But they were not supported by a significant part of the army and the French people; moreover, the rebels could not coordinate their actions properly, and as a result the uprising was crushed.
From left to right: French generals Andre Zeller, Edmond Zhuo, Raoul Salan and Maurice Schalle at the house of the Government of Algeria (Algeria, 23 April 1961).
- In the 1961, the CAO launched terror - the French began to kill the French. Hundreds of people were killed, thousands of assassinations were committed. Only de Gaulle attempted more than a dozen times.
- Negotiations between Paris and the FLN continued in the spring of 1961, and took place in the resort town of Evian-les-Bains. 18 March 1962 was approved by the Evian agreements, which ended the war and opened the way to independence for Algeria. At the April referendum, 91% of French citizens expressed support for these agreements.
After the official end of the war several more high-profile events occurred. Thus, the policy of the National Liberation Front in relation to the French-Algerians was characterized by the slogan "Suitcase or coffin". Although the FLN promised Paris, neither individuals nor groups that served Paris would be subject to repression. Approximately 1 million people escaped from Algeria and for good reason. 5 July 1962, on the day of the official proclamation of the independence of Algeria, a crowd of armed people arrived in the city of Oran, the gangsters began to torture and kill Europeans (approximately 3 thousand people were missing). Tens of thousands of Harki had to flee Algeria - the winners organized a series of attacks on Muslim soldiers in France, killing from 15 to 150 thousand people.
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