Mexican expedition of Cortez. The Siege and Fall of Tenochtitlan
The capture of Tenochtitlan. Spanish image XVII.
Exhausted by the 93 day siege, the city was finally subdued. No more fierce cries of "Santiago!" Nor the hoarse war cries of Indian soldiers could be heard on its streets. By evening, the merciless massacre subsided - the winners themselves were exhausted by stubborn battles and fed up with blood today. Hernan Cortez, commander of the Spanish expeditionary detachment and military leader of numerous Indian allies, allowed the remnants of the population to leave Tenochtitlan, devastated by siege, famine and epidemics. About 30, thousands of residents - all that remained of the once densely populated city, exhausted and exhausted, wandered along the dams of Lake Texcoco. The ruins, smoking and generously littered with the dead, summed up not only the 22 started on May 1521 from the siege of the “capital of savages”, compared with which many cities of Spain looked like big villages, but also completed a series of military expeditions against the Aztec country. Expeditions, which were supposed to bring the two most necessary things in the local, already begun to become colonial, lands - gold and glory. In gaining fame, the Spaniards did not doubt. Their exploits in the jungles and swamps of the West Indies were to overshadow even the merits of the conquerors of Moorish Granada. It was assumed that the gold to Eran Cortes will be told by none other than the Aztec ruler of the Kuahtemoc, captured. But the will of the last leader of the Aztecs turned out to be stronger than the walls of Tenochtitlan. The winners did not yet know this, hoping to take rich booty.
Following Columbus
The discovery in 1492 of new lands overseas created the prospect for Spain to transform from a regional kingdom into world leaders. The centuries-long process of reconquista was completed by the fall of the last Moorish stronghold, the Granada Caliphate. Numerous proud and as poor as the bellicose Spanish nobility reluctantly sheathed the sword. On the Iberian Peninsula, there are no more places where one could snoop glory and get gold - all that remained was to look for faraway and rumored fabulously rich countries located far in the East. It was possible, of course, to go in for the Berber pirates of the North African coast, but the trophies mined in such raids were no match for the stories of the Indians, where the gold was almost underfoot.
The energy of the military aristocracy and the rest of the military people, who had become accustomed to military affairs for some time, had already begun to look for a way out, converting into an increase in internal tension. And here, very opportunely, the country was swept by the news of the eccentric, but very energetic Genoese, who obtained from the royal couple Ferdinand and Isabella the financing of a risky expedition, and about its successful completion. Of course, the possible riot of the bored hidalgos encouraged the monarchs to give good to the navigator - the state treasury was as far from full as the legendary Katay or India from Madrid. Columbus and his companions told about the numerous and fabulously rich tropical islands and the peace-loving savages who inhabited them. A start was made, and more and more new expeditions stretched across the ocean.
Following Columbus, new personalities headed for themselves, in whose eyes and hearts no fire of knowledge of the world was burning, but a pragmatic fire of profit. They were led by a thirst for gold. Numerous islands were really beautiful, nature amazed with pomp and riot of colors. However, this magnificence could not be turned into voiced doubloes. The savages had little of the precious yellow metal, and it did not increase even when they began to be exterminated and enslaved with an ever-increasing scale. Very soon, the Spaniards received information about the vast continent that was further to the west, where, according to unclear and contradictory rumors, there were large cities crowded with such a coveted yellow metal. During their third voyage to New World, the ships of Columbus finally reached the shores of present-day Panama and Costa Rica, where locals told arrivals about lands rich in gold, which were located much further south. Obviously, it was then that the Spaniards first learned about Peru.
For a long time, the Spanish expansion in the New World was limited to the Caribbean - it was necessary to create a base for further advance to the west. The start of gold mining on Espanyol spurred the Spaniards to more intensive colonization. At the beginning of 1517, the expedition of Francisco de Cordoba on three ships ended up in a storm off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. It was possible to find out that these lands are inhabited not by primitive from the point of view of Europeans by savages of the Caribbean, but by much more developed Maya people. Aboriginal people wore gold jewelry in abundance, but the aliens were met with hostility - the Spaniards, battered in armed clashes, where de Cordoba himself was badly wounded, were forced to return to Cuba. So it became known that there are still unexplored and, most importantly, rich territories near the newly established colonies.
The information received by the people of de Cordoba greatly disturbed the local settlers and aroused the keen interest of Cuba's governor Diego Velazquez de Cuellar. In 1518, the expedition of Juan de Grilhava was equipped for a more detailed study of open lands. De Grilhava reached the coast of Yucatan and moved along it to the west, soon reaching Mexico, which he called New Spain. Then the expedition came into contact with representatives of the ruler of the Aztec state, who already knew about the appearance of the newcomers. De Grilhava conducted friendly negotiations with the Indians benevolently and skillfully, assuring them of the most peaceful intentions, and, moreover, carried out a number of lucrative trade deals, bartering quite a lot of gold and precious stones. Warmly saying goodbye to the host, the Spaniards returned to Cuba after the 6 month-long march.
The guesses of Diego Velázquez were confirmed: in the west there were indeed lands rich in gold and other jewels. And these lands did not yet belong to the Spanish crown. Such a glaring omission was necessary to correct. And then the enterprising governor began to prepare a new expedition, and she was no longer research.
“He had little money, but a lot of debt”
Fernando Cortes de Monroy and Pizarro Altamirano. So the conquistador was represented by an unknown artist of the 18th century.
Castilian passions with a Caribbean tinge began to rage almost immediately around the future expedition. The estimated size of the wealth of an uncharted country in the enterprising heads of the colonists was conveniently transformed into a decent sum. Enjoying great prestige among his soldiers and sailors, de Grilhava was pushed aside by the governor from participating in the new project. Velazquez feared that all the gold and other pleasant factors accompanying it, like the location of the royal court and honors, would pass by him. For this purpose, the governor decided to appoint another person, unaware that there would be much more trouble with him.
Hernan Cortes, who was destined to expand the possession of the Spanish crown and unusually enrich the royal treasury, came from a poor, albeit a very noble noble family. He was born in 1485 year - by the time the majority of the young men of the Mauritanian states in Spain no longer exists. Therefore, the young Cortes went to study at the University of Salamanca, where he studied for two years. However, the study bored the young hidalgo, all the more everyone around was talking about new lands open across the ocean, where you can not only make a career, but also get rich quick. In 1504, Cortes throws a university and travels across the ocean to Espanyol. Later, in 1510 – 1514. he took part in the complete conquest of Cuba by the Spaniards under the command of Diego Velázquez.
At the time of the expedition outfit to Mexico, Cortez held the position of alcalde in the newly founded city of Santiago. Contemporaries noted his lively, dynamic mind and education - the failed graduate of Salamanca knew Latin well and in his letters did not once quote ancient authors. At the end of October, 1518 of Velasquez signed a contract and instructions for Cortes, according to which the governor of Cuba equipped three ships, and Cortes himself and the treasurer of the colony Amador de Lares provided funds for the remaining ten. Thus, Velazquez oversaw the expedition, but invested much less money there than its other organizers. In order to raise the necessary funds, Cortes had to pledge all his property and thoroughly get into debt. The recruitment of participants was going on suspiciously quickly - each of Cortes promised a share in the spoils and a vast estate with slaves.
A squad of fortune seekers numbering more than 500 people were recruited without much difficulty, however, such activity somewhat puzzled Senor Velasquez. In the colonial administration, where one of the most effective means of reaching the upper steps of the career ladder was the banal pacing and regular informing, Cortes had enough enemies and rivals. They even whispered in the corners that the proud hidalgo wanted to conquer Mexico for himself and become its ruler. Naturally, such rumors disturbed Señor Velasquez, and he issued an order to dismiss Cortés from the post of the expedition leader, but in response received only an ironic letter asking not to take the saboteurs seriously. The enraged governor ordered to arrest the insolent squadron and detain the squadron that was ready to sail, however 10 February 1519, 11 expedition ships left Cuba and headed for the west.
Aliens and owners
The enterprise of Cortes was in its essence not a full-fledged invasion, but was rather similar to the usual robber raid organized by a large and well-armed gang. At the disposal of the adventurer was a little more than 550 people (including 32 crossbowman and 13 arquebusiers), who had 14 tools and 16 horses. About a hundred sailors from the ship’s crews and about two hundred Indian porters should be added to them. On the side of the Spaniards was not only a solid combat experience of European and colonial wars, but also a significant technological advantage. In addition to firearms weapons and crossbows, they had steel weapons and armor. Horses completely unfamiliar to the Indians, for a long time they were perceived as a kind of "miracle weapon" of white aliens.
Rounding the Yucatan Peninsula, Cortes made a stop at Campeche Bay. The local population did not feel a touch of hospitality to the Spaniards and therefore rushed into battle. Cleverly using artillery and horsemen against the Indians, Cortes managed to disperse the numerous enemy. The local leaders, who made the necessary conclusions, sent gifts to the menacing newcomers, including 20 young women. One of them, after baptism, who received the sonorous name of Donna Marina, led the expedition leader closer to her, and she played an important role in the conquest against the Aztecs. Moving further west along the coast, on April 21, the Spaniards landed on the coast and founded the fortified settlement of Veracruz. It has become the main stronghold and transit point of the upcoming campaign.
Cortes and his companions in general already imagined the situation in the local regions. In most parts of Mexico, from the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico, there is a vast Aztec state, which is in fact the union of three cities: Texcoco, Tlakopana and Tenochtitlana. Real power was concentrated in Tenochtitlan and was in the hands of the supreme ruler, or emperor, as the Spaniards called him. The Aztec imposed a large number of different cities with an annual tribute - they did not interfere in internal affairs, demanding from the local authorities only timely payments and provision of military contingents in the event of hostilities. The existing order of things was an impressive opposition in the face of the large and powerful city of Tlaxcala, whose population reached almost 300 thousand people. The rulers of Tlaxcala were the old enemies of Tenochtitlan and waged an ongoing war with him. The emperor of the Aztecs at the time of the appearance of Cortes was Montezuma II, the ninth ruler. He was known as an experienced and skilled warrior and talented administrator.
Soon after the Spaniards fortified themselves in Veracruz, a delegation led by the local Aztec governor arrived. He was received favorably by arranging a whole performance, which, in combination, was a demonstration of military power. The people of Cortez showed riders to the shocked Aboriginal people, and they set up their artillery fireworks as a final chord. The head of the conquistadors was amiable and gave gifts to Montezuma through the governor. The gilded Spanish helmet was especially notable among them.
Meanwhile, a detachment of Cortes began to make his way deep into the continent. The companions of this campaign were the heat, mosquitoes and the famine that began soon - the provisions brought from Cuba fell into disrepair. A week after the visit of the governor from the Aztecs, a new delegation arrived with great gifts, including gold and expensive jewelry. Montezuma, through his envoys, thanked Cortes, but categorically refused to conduct any negotiations with the aliens and persistently asked them to turn back. A large part of the Spanish detachment supported this idea, considering the obtained loot to be sufficient, and the hardships experienced in the march - too heavy. However, Cortez, who put everything at stake in this enterprise, resolutely insisted on continuing the campaign. In the end, the argument that there was still a lot of booty ahead played a role, and the march continued. Gradually, Cortez and his companions realized that they were to deal not with the wildish tribes of Cuba and Hispaniola, but with a numerous enemy, well-armed by Native American standards. The most sensible in this situation was to take advantage of the discord among the Indians and the fact that part of the population expressed dissatisfaction with the Aztecs, and get allies among the locals.
As they moved deeper into Mexico, the Spaniards clashed with the warriors of the city of Tlaxcala, Tenochtitlan’s strongest and most persistent rival. Initially, the Tlaxcalteks mistakenly took whites for the Aztec allies and attacked them. This attack was repulsed, but the Spaniards praised the fighting qualities of the warriors of this tribe. Finding out the situation, the leaders of Tlaxcala offered Cortes their assistance, providing porters and warriors for his detachment. Subsequently, the Spaniards were held by other tribes. None of these native princes, obviously, did not even suspect that after the destruction of the Aztecs, their turn would come, and the seemingly friendly whites would not even leave the memory of their Indian allies.
The behavior of Montezuma caused embarrassment to his entourage - the further Cortez’s squad advanced, the more the Aztec ruler lost his presence of mind and his inherent will. Maybe the legend of the god Quetzalcoatl played a role here, who once had to return, and which Cortez allegedly used for his own purposes. Or maybe, Montezuma was influenced by greatly exaggerated stories about the weapons of white aliens and their horses. Time after time, the Aztec ruler sent his envoys with rich gifts to the conquistadors, insistently demanding that they turn back and not go to Tenochtitlan. However, such events had the opposite effect. White's appetites only grew, as did their desire to continue the path.
Montezuma continued to surprise his subjects with indecision. On the one hand, it was not without his knowledge that an ambush was organized in the city of Cholula on the Spaniards, only at the last moment revealed by Cortes' companion to the bottom Marina. On the other hand, the Aztec ruler easily repudiated the rulers of Cholula, executed by aliens, explaining what happened with a slight misunderstanding. Having large military forces, many times superior to the detachment of the Spaniards and their allies, Montezuma nevertheless did not budge, but continued to send gifts, each time more and more luxurious than the previous ones, and asked the aliens to turn back. Cortez was relentless, and in early November 1519 his detachment saw the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan before him.
Cortes in Tenochtitlan, or Night of Sorrow
A detachment of Europeans and their allies freely entered the city, located on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, through one of the dams connecting Tenochtitlan with the shore. At the entrance they were met by Montezuma himself and his nearest dignitaries in expensive and elegant clothes. Observant soldiers, to their delight, noticed a large amount of gold jewelry on the “savages”. The city struck the Europeans with its size and livability. It had wide streets and vast squares - the Aztec capital contrasted brightly with many European cities. The area around Tenochtitlana was densely populated, other no less magnificent and large cities were located nearby. And in the midst of all these man-made riches was Cortes with several hundred warriors, exhausted by the road through the jungle.
Spanish image of Tenochtitlana XVII.
There could be no question of conquering this huge and rich country by such meager forces, and the leader of the conquistadors behaved intelligently, prudently and sophisticatedly. He began to "process" Montezuma, gradually subordinating the will of the Aztec ruler. The detachment was located in a vast building, almost in the center of Tenochtitlan, and Cortes managed to persuade Montezuma to go there to live as a sign of his location for the newcomers. Using the excitement of the Indians and their attack on the garrison of Veracruz, Cortes achieved the extradition of the guilty leaders and burning them at the stake. For greater interest, the most of Montezuma was shackled.
An enterprising hidalgo began to rule the country on his behalf and first of all demanded tribute from the rulers of Tenochtitlan under the authority of gold. The volume of prey taken was simply colossal. For ease of transportation, the Spaniards poured most of the jewelry and jewelry into gold bars. Illiterate soldiers from Castile and Andalusia did not know such figures to calculate the monetary equivalent of the captured treasures. However, they still had to be taken out of the city, the hospitality of which caused more and more concerns.
Meanwhile, disturbing came from the coast. news. The governor of Cuba, Senor Velasquez, continued to worry about the fate of the escaped Cortes and his people, so he sent in the footsteps of his fugitive, Panfilo de Narvaez, on 18 ships accompanied by a detachment of 1500 soldiers with an order to deliver Cortes "dead or alive". Leaving a small garrison in Tenochtitlan to protect Montezuma, as well as the sick and wounded, Cortes rushed to Veracruz, having about 260 Spaniards and 200 Indian soldiers armed with spikes. He was going to solve the problem with the newcomers with cunning and power. For a start, several officers were sent to Narvaez, on which they prudently hung a lot of gold jewelry. Narvaez was a good servant and rejected all attempts to reach an agreement, but his subordinates, seeing the tremendous possibilities and prospects in the outfit of parliamentarians, made the proper conclusions. Under cover of night, the people of Cortez attacked the detachment of Narvaez. They managed to quietly remove the sentries and capture the guns. Their opponents fought reluctantly and without due enthusiasm, willingly moving to the side of Cortes. Narvaez himself lost an eye in battle and was captured. His army actually replenished the ranks of the conquistadors - Cortes ordered to return them weapons and personal belongings, arranging them with gifts.
During fights between the Spaniards, a messenger arrived from Tenochtitlan with frightening news that an uprising had begun in the Aztec capital. Soon the whole country rose against the aliens. Cortez was ready for such a development. Now his army consisted of 1300 soldiers, 100 riders, 150 arquebusiers. The Tlaxcalteks, who remained his reliable allies, added to this number more than 2 thousands of selected warriors. Rapidly advancing, the allies of 24 June 1520 approached Tenochtitlan. And then the reasons for the uprising became known: during the traditional celebration for the Indians in honor of the god of war, the Witzlipochtli Spaniards, led by the garrison commander Pedro de Alvarado, wanted to appropriate the rich gold jewelry worn on the priests. As a result of the quarrel, many locals and priests were killed and robbed. This overwhelmed the Aztec patience, and they took up arms.
It is wrong to represent the Aztec state education as a paradise of the New World, and its population is the gullible and good-natured inhabitants of a fairy-tale country. The power of the Aztecs was cruel and merciless, their religious cult included regular and numerous human sacrifices. However, the white aliens, mistaken for the messengers of the gods at first, turned out to be no less cruel than the Aztecs, and their greed and thirst for gold knew no limits. In addition, they brought with them a hitherto unknown disease, which began to devastate the country. As it turned out, one of the black slaves from the ships of Narvaez was sick with smallpox, about which the Indians had no idea.
Having more forces than at the beginning of the march, Cortes easily entered Tenochtitlan and unblocked the Alvarado garrison. However, soon the Indians blocked the invaders in the buildings occupied by them, blocking the supply of food. The attacks continued almost daily, and the Spaniards began to bear significant losses, to which famine was added. While under siege, Cortes again decided to resort to the help of his noble captive: he convinced Montezuma to speak to his subjects and convince them to stop fighting. The Aztec ruler came out in full dress on the roof of the building and began to admonish residents and soldiers to stop the assault and allow the newcomers to leave the city. His speech was met with a shower of stones and arrows. Having been mortally wounded, Montezuma died after some time. Together with him ended attempts to negotiate with the Indians peacefully.
The forces of the besiegers increased, the position of the besieged in the imperial palace deteriorated. It ended not only food, but also stocks of gunpowder. In early July, Cortez makes the difficult decision to go for a breakthrough from the city. Of all the stolen treasures, he singled out the royal share, which was obligatory for transportation, and allowed the rest to take as much gold as they could. Experienced warriors grabbed precious stones, while recruits, former soldiers of Narvaez, burdened themselves with a large amount of yellow metal. Subsequently, it played a deadly joke with them.
In the dead of midnight, loading the load on the Indians and a few horses, the detachment of Cortes went on a breakthrough. However, the noise of the marching column was heard by the sentries, and soon it was attacked by numerous forces. The portable bridge, assembled for ease of forcing the canals, overturned, and many of the retreating were in the water. The weight of the newly acquired riches dragged down their newly-made masters down, and many simply drowned. In the confusion, the Aztecs managed to take some prisoners. With great difficulty, the Spaniards and their allies reached the shores of Lake Texcoco. On this night, which later received the poetic name “Night of Sorrow”, they suffered heavy losses.
In the following days, the conquistadors underwent new attacks and eventually retreated to the allied Tlaxcala. On the night of sorrow and in the following days, Cortes lost almost 900 Spaniards and about 1,5 thousands of Allied Indians. Captured in captivity were sacrificed, as were several horses. The allies Cortes managed to put in order his battered army and begin to implement revenge.
The siege and death of Tenochtitlan
The leader of the conquistadors, despite the difficult situation and loss, with all the energy began to prepare the seizure of the Aztec capital. By persuasion, promises, gifts, he was able to win over a number of Indian tribes to his side. His comrades-in-arms were able to intercept several ships with reinforcements and supplies sent by the governor of Cuba to the aid of the Narvaez detachment, whose fate he had no idea about. Realizing that it would be expensive and unproductive to attack Tenochtitlan only from land, Cortes ordered the shipmaster Martin Lopez in his army to build 13 small collapsible brigantines for action on Lake Texcoco.
Preparing for the battle and the Aztecs. After the death of Montezuma, the supreme power passed to his brother, Kuitlauaca, but he soon died of smallpox, and his nephew, a talented and courageous commander Kuautemok, took command. He made great efforts to strengthen the city and increase the fighting efficiency of the still numerous Aztec troops.
28 December 1521. Cortes troops marched on Tenochtitlan. He had about 600 Spaniards (of which 40 riders and about 80 arquebusiers and crossbowmen) and more than 15 thousands of soldiers of the allied Indian tribes. Reaching loyal to the Aztec city of Texcoco near the lake of the same name, Cortes decided to equip his headquarters here. Here it was planned to carry out the assembly of riverboats built by the Spaniards, for which it was necessary to dig a canal into Lake Texcoco. This labor-intensive operation took only a few months - the Spaniards had plenty of labor. Cortez sent a message to Quautemoku, offering him peace and power over his state in exchange for an oath to the Spanish king. Knowing what an overly trusting uncle had finished, the young ruler solemnly swore that any Spaniard who was captured would be sacrificed without fail. It was not possible to agree, and soon the fighting resumed.
28 April 1521. The Spaniards brought their first three vessels into the lake, each with a cannon. 22 May Spanish and Indian troops blocked all three dams connecting Tenochtitlan with the coast. Thus began the three-month siege of the city. Great assistance to the allies was provided by prudently built brigantines, regularly shelling the positions of the Aztecs. The launched assault attacks, in spite of the initial success achieved, did not lead to the desired results - attempts to gain a foothold in urban areas failed repeatedly. Kauutemoku managed to strengthen its capital well.
Yet the strategic position of the Aztec deteriorated. Seeing their unenviable state, the former allies began to go over to the side of the enemy. Tenochtitlan was completely blocked, and the supply of food stopped. To top it off, on the orders of Cortes, the aqueduct was destroyed, supplying the island with drinking water, which the besieged had to extract from wells. One of the attacks of the Spaniards ended with the encirclement and the defeat of the assault column - 60 prisoners were solemnly sacrificed at the top of the Great Temple, towering in the city center. This tactical defeat of the enemy encouraged defenders and raised doubts among the conquistadors' allies.
Then Cortez decided to change tactics - instead of head-on attacks and attempts to break into the center of the city, he began to systematically gnaw through the defense. Captured buildings were destroyed, and city canals were filled up. Thus, it turned out more free space, convenient for the actions of artillery and cavalry. Another attempt to negotiate was scornfully rejected by the Quauhtemoc, and on August 13 the Allies launched a general assault. By this time, the forces of the defenders had been undermined by hunger and progressive diseases, and yet they put up serious resistance.
On the last hours of Tenochtitlan there are conflicting information. Thus, according to one of the legends, the last center of resistance was at the top of the Great Temple, where, after a merciless fight, the Spaniards managed to hoist the royal banner. Four big pies were seen from one of the brigantines trying to cross the lake - the ship chased them and captured them. On one of the pie was Quauhtemoc, who offered himself hostage in exchange for the integrity of his loved ones and satellites. He was sent to Cortes, who met the captive ruler with emphasized politeness. In the city itself continued the massacre, which began to subside only in the evening. Then the winners "graciously" allowed the surviving inhabitants to leave their city, turned into ruins. The Quauhtemok was subsequently interrogated and tortured in the hope of obtaining information about gold - the Spaniards took much more modest loot than they had expected. Without saying anything, the last ruler of the Aztecs was executed, along with him the secret of the gold hidden by his order died. This did not save the Aztecs from colonization. As, however, Indian gold subsequently not only did not save the Spanish colonial empire from collapse, but also became one of the reasons for the decline of Spain.
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