Lions from the old zoo
Tenacity and persistence of the British elite in defending their interests are known. She begins active actions when the enemy or those whom the British appointed as such are not even thinking of threatening Britain. There are enough examples on this subject, let us dwell on one that is directly related to our country and, perhaps, has not lost its relevance.
In 1829, Russia and Turkey concluded the Adrianople Peace Treaty, which ended the war of one and a half years. Among other things, we have achieved from the enemy concessions to the eastern coast of the Black Sea, including the fortresses of Anapa and Poti. In addition to its geopolitical significance, the victory of Russia made it possible to stop the slave trade, which the armed groups of the Circassians were using. They raided Russian settlements to capture prisoners and sell them to Turkey. Oddly enough, in London it was regarded as a threat to their colonial possessions in India.
It would seem that there is Anapa, and where Delhi, however, the British think strategically, for many years to come. And they reasoned that the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus would inevitably lead to the attempts of St. Petersburg to establish itself in Persia. In turn, entrenched there, the Russians will not stop, move to Afghanistan, and this is the gateway to India.
The British had worked in the Caucasus before, but after the Peace of Adrianople they sharply intensified. London put on the creation of a Circassian independent state. It is clear that there was no talk about any sovereign education. According to the plans of London, a Turkish vassal was to appear in the Caucasus, and the Ottoman Empire itself was already under the political influence of Britain. She, remaining as it were, was able to manipulate the new “state”, using it in the anti-Russian game.
In addition to the strategic defense of India, London had a tactical goal. At the beginning of the XIX century, English merchants have already mastered the trade route through Trebizond. On it went the goods to Turkey and Persia. When Russia annexed Poti, the British were worried that “their” new commercial artery could be cut. As usual, under the guise of free-market propaganda, the British government actually stood guard over the interests of its merchants, providing them with purely protectionist support. So for this reason, England decided to give Russia a fight in the Caucasus.
We did not have time to dry the ink on the paper of the Treaty of Adrianople, and the British ships, loaded weapons and powder, already stretched to the east coast of the Black Sea. At the same time, the British Embassy in Turkey has become a center coordinating subversive activities in the Caucasus.
Our diplomacy, too, was not idle and in 1833, she achieved a major victory. It was possible to conclude nothing less than a real defense alliance with Turkey. This agreement is without exaggeration unique. Old enemies who have repeatedly fought among themselves have pledged to help each other in the event that a third country attacks Russia or Turkey. In Constantinople, they realized that the West poses a far more terrible threat than its northern neighbor. Indeed, in 1830, France took away huge Algeria from Turkey, and when Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali declared independence, the empire was on the verge of disintegration.
So who is the snake
Help came from where she was waited. Nicholas I instantly oriented himself in the situation, realizing that “independent” Egypt would become a toy in the hands of England and France. Moreover, in Paris they cherished the plan to transform Syria into their colony. Therefore, the king sent a Russian fleet to help the Sultan. A landing force commanded by General Muravyev landed on the Bosphorus. Turkey was saved, and Russia received a number of major concessions from Constantinople. The straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, at the request of St. Petersburg, were closed for all warships except the Russians. In Constantinople, it was said then that a drowning man would seize upon a snake. But whatever one may say, the deed was done.
When they learned about this in London, they officially announced that they did not recognize Russia's rights to the east coast of the Black Sea. It is interesting that at this moment the British decided to play the Polish card. Foreign Minister Palmerston personally supervised the emigre representation of Warsaw (“Jond narodovy”) in Europe. Through this organization propaganda was conducted, addressed to the Polish officers of the Russian army in the Caucasus.
The leader of the émigré circles Czartoryski developed a plan for a large-scale war. It was supposed to hammer together a broad coalition, which would include the southern Slavs, Cossacks and Highlanders. Caucasians had to go to Moscow along the Volga, the Cossacks - across the Don, through Voronezh and Tula, and the Polish corps was scheduled to strike at Little Russia. The ultimate goal was to restore the Polish state to the borders of 1772, depending on which the Don and Black Sea Cossacks would be located. And in the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia and the Federation of Muslim Nations were to appear under the protectorate of Ports.
This could be considered as fantasies of expatriates divorced from life, but the plan was approved by Paris and London. So, the threat was real, and the subsequent events of the Crimean War confirmed this fully. In addition, the Polish uprising 1830 – 1831 showed that the intentions of the separatists are more than serious.
And what about Russia? Nicholas I, having considered a number of proposals, agreed to build fortifications on the Circassian coast, the Black Sea Fleet set up a coast patrol. And they sent Colonel Khan-Giray to the diplomatic front. He was supposed to hold talks with Circassian leaders. Alas, his mission was not crowned with success, but it was not possible to achieve reconciliation with the Circassians. And here Russian diplomacy had to face fierce resistance from British emissaries.
In 1834, the Circassian nobility sent its representatives to Constantinople to clarify the position of Turkey towards the highlanders. David Urquhart was also there, a young but already experienced special agent assigned to the British Embassy. He met with the Caucasian delegates and promised them support for London in the fight against Russia. Armed with letters from Prince Sefer Bey, an authority on the Circassians, Urquhart went to Circassia.
There he quickly absorbed confidence and made such a strong impression with his speeches that the highlanders offered the Briton to lead an armed uprising against Russia. However, he decided to start an ideological war. Returning to England, Urquhart took part in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence of Circassia, and in addition, flooded the press with reports and articles of Russophobic content, convincing public opinion that Russia represents a mortal danger to Britain. He predicted that Persia would become a royal protectorate and go to war for India for trophies. Psychologically, the calculation was correct. The fear of losing the benefits of exploiting Indian wealth acted on the British elite best of all else.
In 1835, the Adygei elders held a national assembly to determine their attitude towards Russia. There arrived the British agent Captain Lyons, who brought messages from Sefer Bey. They contained a call for an uprising, which would be supported by England and Turkey. The Adygs decided not to put up with the Russians and, for this, to take the oath of all the Shapsugs with Natukhais. Those who violated the oath were threatened with a fine and plunder of their farms. It was planned to invite abadzekhs to joint actions against the Russians, and in case of refusal to force them by force of arms. In the spring of 1836, shapsugs and natukhais began attacking Russian cordon lines.
Clash at the Gate to India
Meanwhile, the fear of a Russian campaign in India became pathological in Britain. Urquhart's words fell on the ground prepared by Kinneir, the British Shah's adviser during the Russian-Persian 1804 – 1813 war. He was perhaps the first expert to scrutinize the situation for India’s vulnerability to invasion. He knew perfectly well the geography of Turkey and Persia, Kinneir came to the conclusion that for the Russians a trip to the British possessions would be a very difficult task. Nevertheless, in principle, Russia is capable of this, because its army is strong and disciplined. Of course, those who wish to capture India will meet mountains and flowing rivers on their way. Kinneir paid particular attention to the harsh climate and frost, which is not uncommon in those parts, but Russians are afraid of the winter ... And you can wade the rivers. According to Kinneir, the Russian army should cross Afghanistan, starting from the Caucasian bases or from Orenburg. In the first case, the enemy will take advantage of the Caspian Sea, he will not need to march all over Persia. Whatever it was, when Urquhart began to frighten the British by the Russian threat, they also remembered Kinneir's reasoning.
And then Russia began to increase its fleet, which reinforced the suspicions of London. And Urquhart, in agreement with the British government, prepared a provocation. From its filing in 1836, the English ship "Vixen", loaded with weapons, gunpowder and salt, headed for the Circassian coast. The press received the task to widely notify the population of Britain. When the ship was arrested by our brig Ajax, it caused a storm of indignation of the English public. Petersburg, in turn, accused London of directing agents to the Circassians in order to raise them to revolt.
Relations between the two capitals have heated to the limit, the British threatened with war. However, Russia did not retreat, while other great powers did not dare to take a pro-British position. As a result, London decided to defuse the situation, putting Urkvarta scapegoat. In turn, Russia refused to return the confiscated vessel, but pretended that behind this incident there is only an arrogant Englishman not in mind, and not at all the official leadership of Albion. Urquart was dismissed from his post as secretary at the British Embassy in Constantinople, and he switched to other matters. However, Britain did not leave the Caucasus alone.
The main struggle was ahead, and it was not only on the battlefields, but also on the ideological front.
English agent Edmond Spencer secretly visited Cherkessia and published a book in 1837 about what he saw and learned in the Caucasus, and also made a geopolitical review. The “right” of Britain to world domination was proclaimed, the actions of other countries were evaluated precisely from this position. The inclusion of the Caucasus into Russia was assessed by Spencer as a threat to British interests not only in the Middle East, but also in India.
According to the author, the North-Western Caucasus is the most vulnerable point of Russia, and if the Circassians arise, this will help achieve the foreign policy goals of London. Spencer considered the direct war between England and Russia. He believed that in this way a revolutionary explosion could be provoked, unrest would begin not only in Poland, but also on the Don and Kuban. Russia will collapse, and the process of disintegration should go through the English script.
London’s anxiety intensified when British intelligence officer Henry Rawlinson, who had studied the remote regions of Persia, suddenly met with a Russian squadron in 1837. Communicated in Turkic dialect (our Cossack officer did not know either English or French), and Rawlinson learned that the detachment was heading for the Shah’s court, fulfilling Nicholas I’s errand, in fact, as Cossacks later discovered, they received permission to pass through Iran , brought gifts to the Afghan emir Dost Mohammed. In London, the alarm was sounded: from their point of view, Nicholas I clearly set his sights on India. In addition, it turned out that the Cossack officer, who did not speak European languages, was actually a Polish aristocrat in the Russian service, Yan Viktorovich. He knew not only French and English, but also German, Farsi, Turkish, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, and Chagatai. Vitkevich did not just carry gifts to the eastern ruler, but carried out a secret diplomatic mission, the purpose of which was to establish close relations between St. Petersburg and Kabul. London urgently sent Captain Alexander Burns to Afghanistan in order to oppose Vitkevich in every possible way.
When our special envoy arrived at the Afghan emir, he first came under house arrest. Apparently, the British have already managed to process Dost Mohammed and turn him against Russia. However, a few months later, the ruler of Afghanistan replaced anger with mercy and gave Vitkevich a splendid reception at his palace. And Burns had to leave Kabul.
The confrontation between Russia and Britain in Asia was growing, the main battle was ahead.
In 1829, Russia and Turkey concluded the Adrianople Peace Treaty, which ended the war of one and a half years. Among other things, we have achieved from the enemy concessions to the eastern coast of the Black Sea, including the fortresses of Anapa and Poti. In addition to its geopolitical significance, the victory of Russia made it possible to stop the slave trade, which the armed groups of the Circassians were using. They raided Russian settlements to capture prisoners and sell them to Turkey. Oddly enough, in London it was regarded as a threat to their colonial possessions in India.
It would seem that there is Anapa, and where Delhi, however, the British think strategically, for many years to come. And they reasoned that the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus would inevitably lead to the attempts of St. Petersburg to establish itself in Persia. In turn, entrenched there, the Russians will not stop, move to Afghanistan, and this is the gateway to India.
The British had worked in the Caucasus before, but after the Peace of Adrianople they sharply intensified. London put on the creation of a Circassian independent state. It is clear that there was no talk about any sovereign education. According to the plans of London, a Turkish vassal was to appear in the Caucasus, and the Ottoman Empire itself was already under the political influence of Britain. She, remaining as it were, was able to manipulate the new “state”, using it in the anti-Russian game.
In addition to the strategic defense of India, London had a tactical goal. At the beginning of the XIX century, English merchants have already mastered the trade route through Trebizond. On it went the goods to Turkey and Persia. When Russia annexed Poti, the British were worried that “their” new commercial artery could be cut. As usual, under the guise of free-market propaganda, the British government actually stood guard over the interests of its merchants, providing them with purely protectionist support. So for this reason, England decided to give Russia a fight in the Caucasus.
We did not have time to dry the ink on the paper of the Treaty of Adrianople, and the British ships, loaded weapons and powder, already stretched to the east coast of the Black Sea. At the same time, the British Embassy in Turkey has become a center coordinating subversive activities in the Caucasus.
Our diplomacy, too, was not idle and in 1833, she achieved a major victory. It was possible to conclude nothing less than a real defense alliance with Turkey. This agreement is without exaggeration unique. Old enemies who have repeatedly fought among themselves have pledged to help each other in the event that a third country attacks Russia or Turkey. In Constantinople, they realized that the West poses a far more terrible threat than its northern neighbor. Indeed, in 1830, France took away huge Algeria from Turkey, and when Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali declared independence, the empire was on the verge of disintegration.
So who is the snake
Help came from where she was waited. Nicholas I instantly oriented himself in the situation, realizing that “independent” Egypt would become a toy in the hands of England and France. Moreover, in Paris they cherished the plan to transform Syria into their colony. Therefore, the king sent a Russian fleet to help the Sultan. A landing force commanded by General Muravyev landed on the Bosphorus. Turkey was saved, and Russia received a number of major concessions from Constantinople. The straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, at the request of St. Petersburg, were closed for all warships except the Russians. In Constantinople, it was said then that a drowning man would seize upon a snake. But whatever one may say, the deed was done.
When they learned about this in London, they officially announced that they did not recognize Russia's rights to the east coast of the Black Sea. It is interesting that at this moment the British decided to play the Polish card. Foreign Minister Palmerston personally supervised the emigre representation of Warsaw (“Jond narodovy”) in Europe. Through this organization propaganda was conducted, addressed to the Polish officers of the Russian army in the Caucasus.The leader of the émigré circles Czartoryski developed a plan for a large-scale war. It was supposed to hammer together a broad coalition, which would include the southern Slavs, Cossacks and Highlanders. Caucasians had to go to Moscow along the Volga, the Cossacks - across the Don, through Voronezh and Tula, and the Polish corps was scheduled to strike at Little Russia. The ultimate goal was to restore the Polish state to the borders of 1772, depending on which the Don and Black Sea Cossacks would be located. And in the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia and the Federation of Muslim Nations were to appear under the protectorate of Ports.
This could be considered as fantasies of expatriates divorced from life, but the plan was approved by Paris and London. So, the threat was real, and the subsequent events of the Crimean War confirmed this fully. In addition, the Polish uprising 1830 – 1831 showed that the intentions of the separatists are more than serious.
And what about Russia? Nicholas I, having considered a number of proposals, agreed to build fortifications on the Circassian coast, the Black Sea Fleet set up a coast patrol. And they sent Colonel Khan-Giray to the diplomatic front. He was supposed to hold talks with Circassian leaders. Alas, his mission was not crowned with success, but it was not possible to achieve reconciliation with the Circassians. And here Russian diplomacy had to face fierce resistance from British emissaries.
In 1834, the Circassian nobility sent its representatives to Constantinople to clarify the position of Turkey towards the highlanders. David Urquhart was also there, a young but already experienced special agent assigned to the British Embassy. He met with the Caucasian delegates and promised them support for London in the fight against Russia. Armed with letters from Prince Sefer Bey, an authority on the Circassians, Urquhart went to Circassia.
There he quickly absorbed confidence and made such a strong impression with his speeches that the highlanders offered the Briton to lead an armed uprising against Russia. However, he decided to start an ideological war. Returning to England, Urquhart took part in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence of Circassia, and in addition, flooded the press with reports and articles of Russophobic content, convincing public opinion that Russia represents a mortal danger to Britain. He predicted that Persia would become a royal protectorate and go to war for India for trophies. Psychologically, the calculation was correct. The fear of losing the benefits of exploiting Indian wealth acted on the British elite best of all else.
In 1835, the Adygei elders held a national assembly to determine their attitude towards Russia. There arrived the British agent Captain Lyons, who brought messages from Sefer Bey. They contained a call for an uprising, which would be supported by England and Turkey. The Adygs decided not to put up with the Russians and, for this, to take the oath of all the Shapsugs with Natukhais. Those who violated the oath were threatened with a fine and plunder of their farms. It was planned to invite abadzekhs to joint actions against the Russians, and in case of refusal to force them by force of arms. In the spring of 1836, shapsugs and natukhais began attacking Russian cordon lines.
Clash at the Gate to India
Meanwhile, the fear of a Russian campaign in India became pathological in Britain. Urquhart's words fell on the ground prepared by Kinneir, the British Shah's adviser during the Russian-Persian 1804 – 1813 war. He was perhaps the first expert to scrutinize the situation for India’s vulnerability to invasion. He knew perfectly well the geography of Turkey and Persia, Kinneir came to the conclusion that for the Russians a trip to the British possessions would be a very difficult task. Nevertheless, in principle, Russia is capable of this, because its army is strong and disciplined. Of course, those who wish to capture India will meet mountains and flowing rivers on their way. Kinneir paid particular attention to the harsh climate and frost, which is not uncommon in those parts, but Russians are afraid of the winter ... And you can wade the rivers. According to Kinneir, the Russian army should cross Afghanistan, starting from the Caucasian bases or from Orenburg. In the first case, the enemy will take advantage of the Caspian Sea, he will not need to march all over Persia. Whatever it was, when Urquhart began to frighten the British by the Russian threat, they also remembered Kinneir's reasoning.
And then Russia began to increase its fleet, which reinforced the suspicions of London. And Urquhart, in agreement with the British government, prepared a provocation. From its filing in 1836, the English ship "Vixen", loaded with weapons, gunpowder and salt, headed for the Circassian coast. The press received the task to widely notify the population of Britain. When the ship was arrested by our brig Ajax, it caused a storm of indignation of the English public. Petersburg, in turn, accused London of directing agents to the Circassians in order to raise them to revolt.
Relations between the two capitals have heated to the limit, the British threatened with war. However, Russia did not retreat, while other great powers did not dare to take a pro-British position. As a result, London decided to defuse the situation, putting Urkvarta scapegoat. In turn, Russia refused to return the confiscated vessel, but pretended that behind this incident there is only an arrogant Englishman not in mind, and not at all the official leadership of Albion. Urquart was dismissed from his post as secretary at the British Embassy in Constantinople, and he switched to other matters. However, Britain did not leave the Caucasus alone.
The main struggle was ahead, and it was not only on the battlefields, but also on the ideological front.
English agent Edmond Spencer secretly visited Cherkessia and published a book in 1837 about what he saw and learned in the Caucasus, and also made a geopolitical review. The “right” of Britain to world domination was proclaimed, the actions of other countries were evaluated precisely from this position. The inclusion of the Caucasus into Russia was assessed by Spencer as a threat to British interests not only in the Middle East, but also in India.
According to the author, the North-Western Caucasus is the most vulnerable point of Russia, and if the Circassians arise, this will help achieve the foreign policy goals of London. Spencer considered the direct war between England and Russia. He believed that in this way a revolutionary explosion could be provoked, unrest would begin not only in Poland, but also on the Don and Kuban. Russia will collapse, and the process of disintegration should go through the English script.
London’s anxiety intensified when British intelligence officer Henry Rawlinson, who had studied the remote regions of Persia, suddenly met with a Russian squadron in 1837. Communicated in Turkic dialect (our Cossack officer did not know either English or French), and Rawlinson learned that the detachment was heading for the Shah’s court, fulfilling Nicholas I’s errand, in fact, as Cossacks later discovered, they received permission to pass through Iran , brought gifts to the Afghan emir Dost Mohammed. In London, the alarm was sounded: from their point of view, Nicholas I clearly set his sights on India. In addition, it turned out that the Cossack officer, who did not speak European languages, was actually a Polish aristocrat in the Russian service, Yan Viktorovich. He knew not only French and English, but also German, Farsi, Turkish, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, and Chagatai. Vitkevich did not just carry gifts to the eastern ruler, but carried out a secret diplomatic mission, the purpose of which was to establish close relations between St. Petersburg and Kabul. London urgently sent Captain Alexander Burns to Afghanistan in order to oppose Vitkevich in every possible way.
When our special envoy arrived at the Afghan emir, he first came under house arrest. Apparently, the British have already managed to process Dost Mohammed and turn him against Russia. However, a few months later, the ruler of Afghanistan replaced anger with mercy and gave Vitkevich a splendid reception at his palace. And Burns had to leave Kabul.
The confrontation between Russia and Britain in Asia was growing, the main battle was ahead.
Information