External forces against the Russian Empire
Not only internal forces (the “fifth column”: the ruling elite, freemasons, bourgeoisie, liberal intelligentsia, revolutionaries and nationalists of all stripes) came out against the Romanov empire, the autocracy, but also external forces. So, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey were vitally interested in the internal explosion in Russia to win the war.
However, not only official enemies, but also formal "allies" on the Entente, came out against the Russian Empire. The United States, Britain and France actively supported the “fifth column” in Russia. During the war, England and France concluded a secret agreement not to give up the Black Sea straits of Russia under any circumstances. Moreover, after the victory over Germany, the "noble allies" of Russia planned to dismember their "partner" - Russia, separating from it the Privislensky krai (Kingdom of Poland), the Baltic states, and if successful, then Little Russia, the Caucasus.
Western powers supported as the so-called. “Fevralistov”, that is, political and social, aristocratic, military, financial and economic elite, who wanted to overthrow the autocracy to get the “freedom”, the full power, and dissimilar revolutionaries and nationalists.
US Ambassador to Russia David Rowland Francis was probably the most unconditional supporter of the February revolution. He spoke of revolution as the “most amazing revolution in stories”, And US President Wilson stated that he unequivocally condemned“ autocracy, which crowned the top of the Russian political structure for so long and which resorted to such terrible methods that it was not Russian either by origin, nor by its nature, nor by its goals. Now it is from the market, and the great noble Russian people have joined with their natural greatness and power to the forces that fight for freedom, justice and peace. "
The United States solved its tasks in the First World War. At the same time, they wanted to crush the “autocracies” of Germany and Russia, weaken Britain, making it their junior partner in the new world order, and weaken France. The Americans planned with their goods to penetrate the British and French colonial empires. The American economy during the war became the main one in the world, and the United States turned from a debtor into a creditor to England and France, taking leading positions in the western project. Post-February Russia in these plans was to become a dependent ally of the United States, a raw materials appendage of the American empire and a sales market for American industry. The United States wanted to get into its sphere of influence the regions of Russia where its main raw material resources — Siberia and the Far East — were concentrated. Therefore, the Americans actively supported the revolution in Russia and prepared plans for dividing Russia into spheres of influence. In the area of responsibility of England departed Russian North (Murmansk, Arkhangelsk), the Caucasus, Turkestan, France - the Northern Black Sea region. Japan was to receive half of Sakhalin, the Amur region, the remaining possessions of Russia in China.
At the same time, the Americans had their own "agents of influence", both among the red and white. In particular, L. Trotsky with a detachment of internationalist militants was abandoned from the United States; the “supreme ruler” of Russia also acted in the interests of America and Britain, Admiral Alexander Kolchak. In the interests of the States, Czechoslovak arrows also acted, which, in fact, unleashed a civil war in Russia, in the interests of the masters of the West.
British warships enter Sevastopol. Autumn 1918
Central powers
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey needed a revolution in Russia to save themselves. The ideology of Pan-Turkism prevailed in Turkey, and the Ottomans dreamed of taking under their hands all the Turkic peoples of the Russian Empire. One of the main ideologists of Pan-Turkism, Zia Gekalp, stated: "The political boundaries of the Turks' homeland cover the whole territory, where the Turkic speech is heard and where there is Turkic culture." And he pathetically asked: “Where is Turan now? Where is the Crimea? What happened to the Caucasus? From Kazan to Tibet, only Russians are everywhere. ” The Turks were declared a "purebred higher race", called to dominate other peoples.
At the congress of the Ittihad party, the Turkic ideologue Dr. Nazim spoke about the creation of the “Great Turan”: “In the East in Asia there are boundless spaces and opportunities for our development and expansion. Do not forget that our ancestors came from Turan, and today in Transcaucasia, as well as to the east of the Caspian Sea, on spacious lands, Turkic-speaking tribes make up an almost complete population, alas, under the yoke of our age-old enemy - Russia. Our political horizons are open only in this direction, and it remains for us to fulfill our sacred duty: to unite the Turkic tribes from the Caspian to the Yellow Sea ... ”.
Therefore, the Russian Caucasus and Central Asia in 1908-1914. Turkish emissaries and agents flooded them, acting under the guise of merchants, pilgrims, travelers who carried out subversive propaganda, looked for contacts with anti-Russian forces, organized revolutionary centers. They continued the same activity during the First World War. In particular, Turkish agents were noted during the organization of the uprising in Turkestan in 1916. Turks also actively worked in the Caucasus, especially among Muslims.
Austria-Hungary and Germany staked on national separatists and revolutionaries in Russia. In particular, supported the Polish and Ukrainian separatism. In the prewar period, the Austro-Hungarian authorities, in response to the growth of the Russian revival in the regions of Galician and Carpathian Rus, which were under their control, began repressions. The scale of the Russian national revival in Galicia is eloquently evidenced by the petition to the Vienna parliament that gathered more than 100 thousand signatures of Russian Galicians: “High Chamber! According to its historical past, culture and language, the Galician-Russian people are closely connected with the Little Russian tribe in Russia who populate the adjacent Galician land, which together with the Great Russian and Belarusian constitutes an integral ethnographic group, that is, the Russian people. The language of this nation, developed by thousands of years of labor of all three Russian tribes and currently occupying one of the first places among the world languages, Galician Russia considered and considers its own and only recognizes the right to be the language of its literature, science and culture in general ... ”. Further, the petition cited the demands for the freedom to study and teach the Russian language, history and law in the Russian lands that were part of Austria-Hungary. At the same time, the process of returning Uniates to Orthodoxy was going on.
The Austrian authorities, which stopped the process of the Russian national revival in Galicia, began demonstrative trials of priests and laity who converted to Orthodoxy and spoke Russian. Whole villages of Transcarpathian Russian peasants who converted to Orthodoxy were subjected to repression. Tens of peasants were condemned, thousands of peasants lived in a state of siege for several years.
When World War I began, the repression escalated into anti-Russian genocide. A network of concentration camps was created. The most famous of them is Talerhof, near the city of Graz in Austria-Hungary. At first, more than 60 thousand people were destroyed, more than 100 thousand fled to Russia, another about 80 thousand people were destroyed after the first retreat of the Russian army, including hundreds of Uniate priests killed, suspected of being sympathized with Orthodoxy and Russia. This information was given by the Polish deputy of the Vienna parliament A. Dashinsky. All Russian deputies of this parliament were shot.
Galician-Russian historian V. Vavrik in his work “Terezin and Talerhof” wrote: “The Austro-Magyar terror immediately spread across Carpathian Russia at all sites ... Our brothers, who had cut themselves from Russia, became not only servants of the Hapsburg monarchy, but also the most ingenious informers and even the executioners of the native people ... they performed the most despicable, shameful orders of the German riders. It is enough to pick up the Ukrainian newspaper “Dilo”, published for the intelligentsia, to be convinced of this completely. Sokal district was a log in the eyes of "Ukrainian patriots", so denunciations from their side fell on the Russian people, like a hail of black clouds ... Teacher Steniatinsky gave prominent, active peasants in the outskirts ... In the village of Makoviski, the priest denounced his parishioners uniate kraychik. In the village of Sosnitsa, “men of confidence”, Ukrainians Mikhail Slyusar, Voyt Mikhail Kushnir and others reported their fellow villagers on the basis of their denunciation. Zadubrovy and back, then hung on willows. In the Stanislav Prison on Dubrov, executions took place from morning to evening ... Talerhof ... In the diaries and notes of the Talerhof slaves we have an accurate description of this Austrian hell. The first batch of Russian Galicians drove in Talerhof 4 September 1914 year. Before the winter of 1916, there were no barracks in Thalerhof. A bunch of people lay on the damp earth in the open, exposed to cold, darkness, rain and frost ... Priest John Mashchak under the date of December 11 1914 of the year noted that 11 people were bitten by lice. Throughout the Talerhof Square, poles were hammered, on which the already fiercely battered martyrs often hung, the “Anbinden”, a glorious German procedure of hanging by one leg, took place. There were no withdrawals even for women and priests ... But still, the dirty tricks of the Germans cannot be compared with the bullying of their own. The German could not so deeply climb his iron boots into the soul of a Slav-Ruthenian, as the same Rusyn, who called himself a Ukrainian, like the official of the police in Peremyshl Timchyk, a scammer and executioner, who spoke of his native people as cattle. He was the right hand of the executioner Piller, who gave information about prisoners. Timchuk, however, outdid another Ukrainian - Uniate Popovich Chirovsky, lieutenant-chief of the Austrian reserve ... All the slaves of Talelhof characterize him as a professional torturer and executioner. ”
Prisoner Talerhof MA Marco in “Galician Calvary” testified: “It’s terribly and painful to remember that difficult period of the close history of our people, when a brother who emerged from some living and ethnographic conditions, without a shudder of the soul, became not only on the side of the physical tormentors of a part of his people, but even more - he demanded these torments, insisted on them ... Carpathian "Ukrainians" were one of the main culprits of our folk martyrology during the war. "
Thus, the Austro-Hungarian authorities struck a terrible blow to the Russian movement in Galicia, effectively destroying the Russian party in this region, and at the same time actively supported the creation of an ethnic chimera, “Ukrainians.” "Ukrainians" acted as executioners of their own people, a weapon in the hands of the enemies of Russian civilization and the Russian super-ethnos.
At the same time, the Austro-Hungarian and German authorities supported the Polish nationalists, directing their energy against the Russian Empire. Anti-Russian-minded supporters of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) believed that the road to Poland’s independence was through the defeat of Russia in the war. A few years before the start of the First World War, the PPS leader Jozef Pilsudski began military training for Polish youth in Austro-Hungarian Galicia. After the start of the war, he formed the Polish legions as part of the Austro-Hungarian army. Legions participated in battles both in Galicia and in the Carpathians. In June 1916, there were about 25 thousand people in the legions.
With the beginning of the war, the Austrian authorities proposed to create a state formation within the Austro-Hungarian Empire - the “Kingdom of Poland” or the Duchy of Krakow. The capital of this public education was to be Krakow. In its composition planned to include the Polish lands that belonged to Austria-Hungary and Russia. 6 August 1914, the German Chancellor Theobald von Betman-Golveg formulated the slogan: "The liberation of the oppressed peoples of Russia, pushing Russian despotism towards Moscow." The press organs were instructed to direct propaganda activities "in favor of the Polish and Ukrainian buffer states."
2 November 1916 of the year Austria-Hungary granted the broad self-government of Galicia. At the same time, the authorities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire rejected a proposal to divide the region along ethnic lines. This step was a concession to the Polish aristocracy, which received the full power in Galicia. The question of the re-establishment of Polish statehood became an important topic in the internal politics of the Central Powers after they occupied Polish territory, which had previously been part of the Russian Empire. Against the background of the depletion of resources, including human reserves, the German and Austro-Hungarian authorities agreed to make concessions to the Polish national movement in exchange for the creation of the Polish army, which would side with the Central Powers against Russia.
On November 5, the German Governor-General in Warsaw, G. Beseler, and the Austro-Hungarian Governor-General K. Cook in Lublin, issued an Act on the intention of the monarchs of the Central Powers to create the Kingdom of Poland, which would become a buffer between the Russian Empire and the Central Powers. The text of the memorandum read: “To the population of the Warsaw governorate. - His Majesty the Emperor of Germany and His Majesty the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary, being firmly convinced of the ultimate victory of their troops, and, wishing a happy future for the Polish regions, which their brave armies, having suffered heavy sacrifices, pulled out from under Russian rule, agreed to create on the basis of these districts an independent state with a hereditary Monarchy and Constitution. The issue of clear boundaries of the Kingdom of Poland will be considered later. In alliance with the Central Powers, the new kingdom will find the guarantees necessary for the free development of its power. Her new army, which will inherit the glorious traditions of the Polish army of the past centuries, and will keep the memory of the Polish brothers, fighting alongside us in this great war of the present, will be recreated. The question of her organization, training and command will be decided on the basis of a bilateral agreement ... ". In the absence of the king, his authority was exercised by the Regency Council. The Polish throne was claimed by Karl Stefan, Archduke of Austria.
After the turning point was indicated in favor of the Entente, Pilsudski realized that it was necessary to change the patrons. He resigned from the Provisional State Council, established in 1917 by the German administration in the occupied part of Poland. After this, Pilsudski ordered that Polish soldiers not take the oath of allegiance to Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, Pilsudski headed the Polish Republic, which began to focus on the United States, Britain and France and became the enemy of Soviet Russia. The Polish elite put forward an ambitious program to seize the western Russian lands, which in the past were part of the Commonwealth.
Odessa. French invaders
To be continued ...
However, not only official enemies, but also formal "allies" on the Entente, came out against the Russian Empire. The United States, Britain and France actively supported the “fifth column” in Russia. During the war, England and France concluded a secret agreement not to give up the Black Sea straits of Russia under any circumstances. Moreover, after the victory over Germany, the "noble allies" of Russia planned to dismember their "partner" - Russia, separating from it the Privislensky krai (Kingdom of Poland), the Baltic states, and if successful, then Little Russia, the Caucasus.
Western powers supported as the so-called. “Fevralistov”, that is, political and social, aristocratic, military, financial and economic elite, who wanted to overthrow the autocracy to get the “freedom”, the full power, and dissimilar revolutionaries and nationalists.
US Ambassador to Russia David Rowland Francis was probably the most unconditional supporter of the February revolution. He spoke of revolution as the “most amazing revolution in stories”, And US President Wilson stated that he unequivocally condemned“ autocracy, which crowned the top of the Russian political structure for so long and which resorted to such terrible methods that it was not Russian either by origin, nor by its nature, nor by its goals. Now it is from the market, and the great noble Russian people have joined with their natural greatness and power to the forces that fight for freedom, justice and peace. "
The United States solved its tasks in the First World War. At the same time, they wanted to crush the “autocracies” of Germany and Russia, weaken Britain, making it their junior partner in the new world order, and weaken France. The Americans planned with their goods to penetrate the British and French colonial empires. The American economy during the war became the main one in the world, and the United States turned from a debtor into a creditor to England and France, taking leading positions in the western project. Post-February Russia in these plans was to become a dependent ally of the United States, a raw materials appendage of the American empire and a sales market for American industry. The United States wanted to get into its sphere of influence the regions of Russia where its main raw material resources — Siberia and the Far East — were concentrated. Therefore, the Americans actively supported the revolution in Russia and prepared plans for dividing Russia into spheres of influence. In the area of responsibility of England departed Russian North (Murmansk, Arkhangelsk), the Caucasus, Turkestan, France - the Northern Black Sea region. Japan was to receive half of Sakhalin, the Amur region, the remaining possessions of Russia in China.
At the same time, the Americans had their own "agents of influence", both among the red and white. In particular, L. Trotsky with a detachment of internationalist militants was abandoned from the United States; the “supreme ruler” of Russia also acted in the interests of America and Britain, Admiral Alexander Kolchak. In the interests of the States, Czechoslovak arrows also acted, which, in fact, unleashed a civil war in Russia, in the interests of the masters of the West.
British warships enter Sevastopol. Autumn 1918
Central powers
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey needed a revolution in Russia to save themselves. The ideology of Pan-Turkism prevailed in Turkey, and the Ottomans dreamed of taking under their hands all the Turkic peoples of the Russian Empire. One of the main ideologists of Pan-Turkism, Zia Gekalp, stated: "The political boundaries of the Turks' homeland cover the whole territory, where the Turkic speech is heard and where there is Turkic culture." And he pathetically asked: “Where is Turan now? Where is the Crimea? What happened to the Caucasus? From Kazan to Tibet, only Russians are everywhere. ” The Turks were declared a "purebred higher race", called to dominate other peoples.
At the congress of the Ittihad party, the Turkic ideologue Dr. Nazim spoke about the creation of the “Great Turan”: “In the East in Asia there are boundless spaces and opportunities for our development and expansion. Do not forget that our ancestors came from Turan, and today in Transcaucasia, as well as to the east of the Caspian Sea, on spacious lands, Turkic-speaking tribes make up an almost complete population, alas, under the yoke of our age-old enemy - Russia. Our political horizons are open only in this direction, and it remains for us to fulfill our sacred duty: to unite the Turkic tribes from the Caspian to the Yellow Sea ... ”.
Therefore, the Russian Caucasus and Central Asia in 1908-1914. Turkish emissaries and agents flooded them, acting under the guise of merchants, pilgrims, travelers who carried out subversive propaganda, looked for contacts with anti-Russian forces, organized revolutionary centers. They continued the same activity during the First World War. In particular, Turkish agents were noted during the organization of the uprising in Turkestan in 1916. Turks also actively worked in the Caucasus, especially among Muslims.
Austria-Hungary and Germany staked on national separatists and revolutionaries in Russia. In particular, supported the Polish and Ukrainian separatism. In the prewar period, the Austro-Hungarian authorities, in response to the growth of the Russian revival in the regions of Galician and Carpathian Rus, which were under their control, began repressions. The scale of the Russian national revival in Galicia is eloquently evidenced by the petition to the Vienna parliament that gathered more than 100 thousand signatures of Russian Galicians: “High Chamber! According to its historical past, culture and language, the Galician-Russian people are closely connected with the Little Russian tribe in Russia who populate the adjacent Galician land, which together with the Great Russian and Belarusian constitutes an integral ethnographic group, that is, the Russian people. The language of this nation, developed by thousands of years of labor of all three Russian tribes and currently occupying one of the first places among the world languages, Galician Russia considered and considers its own and only recognizes the right to be the language of its literature, science and culture in general ... ”. Further, the petition cited the demands for the freedom to study and teach the Russian language, history and law in the Russian lands that were part of Austria-Hungary. At the same time, the process of returning Uniates to Orthodoxy was going on.
The Austrian authorities, which stopped the process of the Russian national revival in Galicia, began demonstrative trials of priests and laity who converted to Orthodoxy and spoke Russian. Whole villages of Transcarpathian Russian peasants who converted to Orthodoxy were subjected to repression. Tens of peasants were condemned, thousands of peasants lived in a state of siege for several years.
When World War I began, the repression escalated into anti-Russian genocide. A network of concentration camps was created. The most famous of them is Talerhof, near the city of Graz in Austria-Hungary. At first, more than 60 thousand people were destroyed, more than 100 thousand fled to Russia, another about 80 thousand people were destroyed after the first retreat of the Russian army, including hundreds of Uniate priests killed, suspected of being sympathized with Orthodoxy and Russia. This information was given by the Polish deputy of the Vienna parliament A. Dashinsky. All Russian deputies of this parliament were shot.
Galician-Russian historian V. Vavrik in his work “Terezin and Talerhof” wrote: “The Austro-Magyar terror immediately spread across Carpathian Russia at all sites ... Our brothers, who had cut themselves from Russia, became not only servants of the Hapsburg monarchy, but also the most ingenious informers and even the executioners of the native people ... they performed the most despicable, shameful orders of the German riders. It is enough to pick up the Ukrainian newspaper “Dilo”, published for the intelligentsia, to be convinced of this completely. Sokal district was a log in the eyes of "Ukrainian patriots", so denunciations from their side fell on the Russian people, like a hail of black clouds ... Teacher Steniatinsky gave prominent, active peasants in the outskirts ... In the village of Makoviski, the priest denounced his parishioners uniate kraychik. In the village of Sosnitsa, “men of confidence”, Ukrainians Mikhail Slyusar, Voyt Mikhail Kushnir and others reported their fellow villagers on the basis of their denunciation. Zadubrovy and back, then hung on willows. In the Stanislav Prison on Dubrov, executions took place from morning to evening ... Talerhof ... In the diaries and notes of the Talerhof slaves we have an accurate description of this Austrian hell. The first batch of Russian Galicians drove in Talerhof 4 September 1914 year. Before the winter of 1916, there were no barracks in Thalerhof. A bunch of people lay on the damp earth in the open, exposed to cold, darkness, rain and frost ... Priest John Mashchak under the date of December 11 1914 of the year noted that 11 people were bitten by lice. Throughout the Talerhof Square, poles were hammered, on which the already fiercely battered martyrs often hung, the “Anbinden”, a glorious German procedure of hanging by one leg, took place. There were no withdrawals even for women and priests ... But still, the dirty tricks of the Germans cannot be compared with the bullying of their own. The German could not so deeply climb his iron boots into the soul of a Slav-Ruthenian, as the same Rusyn, who called himself a Ukrainian, like the official of the police in Peremyshl Timchyk, a scammer and executioner, who spoke of his native people as cattle. He was the right hand of the executioner Piller, who gave information about prisoners. Timchuk, however, outdid another Ukrainian - Uniate Popovich Chirovsky, lieutenant-chief of the Austrian reserve ... All the slaves of Talelhof characterize him as a professional torturer and executioner. ”
Prisoner Talerhof MA Marco in “Galician Calvary” testified: “It’s terribly and painful to remember that difficult period of the close history of our people, when a brother who emerged from some living and ethnographic conditions, without a shudder of the soul, became not only on the side of the physical tormentors of a part of his people, but even more - he demanded these torments, insisted on them ... Carpathian "Ukrainians" were one of the main culprits of our folk martyrology during the war. "
Thus, the Austro-Hungarian authorities struck a terrible blow to the Russian movement in Galicia, effectively destroying the Russian party in this region, and at the same time actively supported the creation of an ethnic chimera, “Ukrainians.” "Ukrainians" acted as executioners of their own people, a weapon in the hands of the enemies of Russian civilization and the Russian super-ethnos.
At the same time, the Austro-Hungarian and German authorities supported the Polish nationalists, directing their energy against the Russian Empire. Anti-Russian-minded supporters of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) believed that the road to Poland’s independence was through the defeat of Russia in the war. A few years before the start of the First World War, the PPS leader Jozef Pilsudski began military training for Polish youth in Austro-Hungarian Galicia. After the start of the war, he formed the Polish legions as part of the Austro-Hungarian army. Legions participated in battles both in Galicia and in the Carpathians. In June 1916, there were about 25 thousand people in the legions.
With the beginning of the war, the Austrian authorities proposed to create a state formation within the Austro-Hungarian Empire - the “Kingdom of Poland” or the Duchy of Krakow. The capital of this public education was to be Krakow. In its composition planned to include the Polish lands that belonged to Austria-Hungary and Russia. 6 August 1914, the German Chancellor Theobald von Betman-Golveg formulated the slogan: "The liberation of the oppressed peoples of Russia, pushing Russian despotism towards Moscow." The press organs were instructed to direct propaganda activities "in favor of the Polish and Ukrainian buffer states."
2 November 1916 of the year Austria-Hungary granted the broad self-government of Galicia. At the same time, the authorities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire rejected a proposal to divide the region along ethnic lines. This step was a concession to the Polish aristocracy, which received the full power in Galicia. The question of the re-establishment of Polish statehood became an important topic in the internal politics of the Central Powers after they occupied Polish territory, which had previously been part of the Russian Empire. Against the background of the depletion of resources, including human reserves, the German and Austro-Hungarian authorities agreed to make concessions to the Polish national movement in exchange for the creation of the Polish army, which would side with the Central Powers against Russia.
On November 5, the German Governor-General in Warsaw, G. Beseler, and the Austro-Hungarian Governor-General K. Cook in Lublin, issued an Act on the intention of the monarchs of the Central Powers to create the Kingdom of Poland, which would become a buffer between the Russian Empire and the Central Powers. The text of the memorandum read: “To the population of the Warsaw governorate. - His Majesty the Emperor of Germany and His Majesty the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary, being firmly convinced of the ultimate victory of their troops, and, wishing a happy future for the Polish regions, which their brave armies, having suffered heavy sacrifices, pulled out from under Russian rule, agreed to create on the basis of these districts an independent state with a hereditary Monarchy and Constitution. The issue of clear boundaries of the Kingdom of Poland will be considered later. In alliance with the Central Powers, the new kingdom will find the guarantees necessary for the free development of its power. Her new army, which will inherit the glorious traditions of the Polish army of the past centuries, and will keep the memory of the Polish brothers, fighting alongside us in this great war of the present, will be recreated. The question of her organization, training and command will be decided on the basis of a bilateral agreement ... ". In the absence of the king, his authority was exercised by the Regency Council. The Polish throne was claimed by Karl Stefan, Archduke of Austria.
After the turning point was indicated in favor of the Entente, Pilsudski realized that it was necessary to change the patrons. He resigned from the Provisional State Council, established in 1917 by the German administration in the occupied part of Poland. After this, Pilsudski ordered that Polish soldiers not take the oath of allegiance to Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, Pilsudski headed the Polish Republic, which began to focus on the United States, Britain and France and became the enemy of Soviet Russia. The Polish elite put forward an ambitious program to seize the western Russian lands, which in the past were part of the Commonwealth.
Odessa. French invaders
To be continued ...
- Alexander Samsonov
- Dive On the causes of the death of the Romanov empire
On the causes of the death of the Romanov empire. H. 2
The last attempt to save the empire of the Romanovs
"The role of the ram penetrating the thickest German defense, we will get ..."
“The social revolution, in its most extreme manifestations, is inevitable with us”
"Stupidity or treason?"
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